EFFE 


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EFFECTIVE   FARMING 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA    •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/effectivefarmingOOsamprich 


EFFECTIVE  FARMING 


A    TEXT-BOOK 

FOR 

AMERICAN    SCHOOLS 


BY 
H.  O.  SAMPSON,  B.Sc,  B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR    OF    AGRICULTURE    AT    THE    WINTHROP    NORMAL   AND 

INDUSTRIAL   COLLEGE,    ROOK    HILL,    8.  C;    FORMERLY 

ASSISTANT   IN    AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 

UNITED    STATES    DEPARTMENT 

OF   AGRICULTURE 


'„    '   »  »       . 


'Neta  gork 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1918 

All  rights  reserved 


6^ 


COPYBIGHT,   1918, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  August,  1918. 


^-^* 
.^^^' 


Norinooti  ^rcss 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

As  early  as  1824  a.  text-book  of  agriculture  was  published  in 
the  United  States.  This  book  was  an  agricultural  reader,  by 
Daniel  Adams.  In  1837  a  ''Farmer's  School  Book,"  by  Orville 
Taylor,  was  published  at  Albany  and  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  For  one 
hundred  years  there  has  been  pressure  for  the  introduction  of 
agriculture  into  schools.  The  subject  has  waited,  however, 
for  many  reasons.  The  industrial  development  of  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  undoubtedly  obscured  the  importance  of 
agriculture.  The  colleges  of  agriculture  were  expected  to 
satisfy  much  of  the  demand.  In  the  later  years  of  the  last 
century  the  profits  in  farming  were  difficult  and  small.  Schools 
have  been  unadapted  to  teaching  in  agriculture. 

Now,  however,  the  way  has  opened.  A  national  law  of  vast 
significance  (The  Smith-Hughes  Act)  has  provided  the  means 
for  redirecting  the  schools  and  providing  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture and  home-making.  Many  schools  have  learned  to  teach 
these  subjects.  It  is  admitted  by  all  that  the  vocational 
subjects  dealing  with  land  and  its  produce  are  essential  to  any 
school  system  that  would  help  maintain  the  best  kind  of  civiliza- 
tion. Our  first  duty  is  to  care  for  the  earth.  If  we  cannot 
produce  our  supplies  for  food  and  clothing,  all  the  other  elements 
of  society  perish.  A  text-book  of  agriculture,  therefore,  deals 
not  only  with  an  interesting  set  of  subjects  but  it  also  strikes 
at  the  foundations  of  human  institutions. 

No  longer  shall  we  feed  ourselves  by  chance  or  by  foraging ; 
the  time  is  rapidly  passing  when  we  may  longer  till  the  earth 
carelessly  or  ignorantly.  All  the  people  demand  that  the 
farmier  shall  be  intelligent,  alert,  and  resourceful,  providing  a 
proper  support  for  society.     We  cannot  live  on  the  past.     We 


vi  Preface 

must  apply  the  best  knowledge  and  the  shrewdest  skill  to  the 
soil. 

To  meet  the  new  demands,  many  texts  are  appearing.  The 
present  book  is  one  of  the  contributions  to  this  rapidly  enlarging 
field,  drawn  from  several  years'  experience  as  a  teacher  of 
agriculture  in  both  high  school  and  college.  It  aims  to  present 
instruction  in  practical  agriculture  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  read- 
ily understood  by  both  pupil  and  general  reader,  and  to  be 
directly  adaptable,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  needs  of  the  class- 
room and  laboratory. 

Agriculture  is  a  subject  of  great  variety.  One  person  cannot 
cover  it  all.  As  indicated  in  certain  parts  of  the  text,  some  of 
the  matter  has  been  compiled  from  publications  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  state  experiment 
stations.  This  form  of  compilation  suggests  the  kind  of  valuable 
information  that  can  be  gleaned  from  these  publications.  Too 
few  teachers  realize  the  great  extent  of  practical  teaching- 
material  in  these  bulletins  and  circulars. 

In  writing  a  text-book,  an  author  must  now  call  on  many 
persons.  Appreciation  is  expressed  to  the  following  individuals, 
public  departments,  and  firms  for  aid  and  for  criticism  of  the 
manuscript  and  for  many  of  the  photographs  used  in  making  the 
illustrations  :  L.  H.  Bailey,  C.  H.  Lane,  E.  A.  Miller,  F.  E.  Heald, 
W.  R.  Barrows,  M.  A.  Carleton,  Joseph  A.  Arnold,  C.  C.  Cleve- 
land, A.  E.  Young,  J.  E.  McClintock,  O.  C.  Peck,  G.  E.  Stayner, 
P.  G.  Holden,  M.  A.  Blake,  M.  B.  Waite,  John  W.  Roberts, 
J.  F.  Jackson,  H.  K.  Bush-Brown,  Charles  Gray,  J.  W.  Clise, 
S.  C.  Hallock,  M.  V.  Richards ;  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Ohio  State  University,  the  experiment  stations 
of  Iowa,  Illinois,  New  Jersey,  Rhode  Island,  and  Ohio;  Cut- 
away Harrow  Company,  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement 
Co.,  International  Harvester  Co.,  The  Avery  Co.,  Southern 
Railway,  Central  of  Georgia  Railway,  Janesville  Plow  Co., 
Aspinwall  Manufacturing  Co.,  The  Deming  Co.,  Thoroughbred 
Record,  Arabian  Horse  Club,  Acme  Harrow  Co.,  Moline  Plow 


Preface  vii 

Co.,  American  Yorkshire  Club,  The  Country  Gentleman, 
American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club, 
American  Aberdeen- Angus  Breeders'  Association.  Aid  from 
these  sources  has  done  much  toward  making  the  book  more 
accurate,  and  more  worth  while  to  both  pupil  and  teacher. 

I  desire,  also,  to  express  my  appreciation  of  help  rendered 
by  several  friends  who  have  read  proof  sheets  of  certain  of  the 
chapters.  Professor  W.  H.  Stevenson,  of  the  Iowa  State 
College,  the  chapters  dealing  with  soils ;  Dr.  C.  W.  Larson,  of 
the  Federal  Dairy  Division,  the  chapters  on  dairy  cattle  and 
dairying;  Professor  R.  S.  Curtis,  of  the  North  Carolina 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  the  chapters  dealing  with 
live-stock;  Alice  V.  Wilson,  of  the  East  CaroUna  Teachers' 
Training  School,  and  Mary  Stuart  MacDougall,  of  the  Winthrop 
Normal  and  Industrial  College  of  South  Carolina,  the  chapter' 
on  plant  study;  and  my  assistant,  Professor  Thomas  B. 
Meadows,  all  of  the  chapters. 

H.  0.  SAMPSON. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

PAOES 

General  View 1-4 

Agriculture  fundamental,  1  —  Agriculture  as  art, 
science,  and  business,  2  —  Divisions  of  agriculture,  3 

—  Farm  possibilities,  4. 

CHAPTER   II 

Plant  Study 5-29 

Elements  and  compounds,  6  —  Classes  of  compounds 
in  plants,  6  —  Structure  and  functions  of  plant  parts,  8 

—  Propagation  by  spores,  12  —  Propagation  by  seeds, 
12  —  Propagation  of  field,  vegetable,  and  greenhouse 
crops  by  division,  15  —  Propagation  of  fruit  plants  by 
division,  17  —  Questions,  26  —  Exercises,  27  —  Ref- 
erences, 29.  ■  , 

CHAPTER   III 

Soils 30-54 

Constituents  of  soil,  31  —  Formation  of  soil,  32  — 
Classification  of  soil  according  to  mode  of  formation, 
32  —  Classification  of  soil  according  to  texture,  34  — 
Classification  of  soil  according  to  rainfall,  36  —  Heavy 
and  light  soils,  36  —  Structure  of  soil,  36  —  Functions 
of  water  in  soil,  38  —  Forms  of  water  in  soil,  39  —  Con- 
trol of  soil-water  by  cropping  methods,  41  —  Irrigation, 
44  —  Soil  drainage,  46  —  Air  in  soil,  48  —  Bacteria  in  soil, 
49  —  Questions,  51  —  Exercises,  52  —  References,  53. 


CHAPTER   IV 

Soil  Fertility 55-78 

The  food  elements  of  plants,  56  —  Use  of  green- 
manure  crops,  61  —  Crops  used  for  green-manure,  62  — 
Importance    of    farm    manure,    67  —  Kinds    of    farm 

ix 


Table  of  Contents 


manure,  68  —  Composition  and  character  of  farm 
manure,  69  —  Methods  of  handling  maniu'e,  74  —  Meth- 
ods of  applying  manure,  77  —  Questions,  78  —  Exercises, 
78  —  References,  78. 

CHAPTER  V 

Soil  Fertility  (Continued) 79-97 

Use  and  misuse  of  fertilizers,  80  —  Nitrogenous 
fertilizers,  82  —  Phosphatie  fertilizers,  84  —  Potassic 
fertilizers,  86  —  Effects  of  the  different  plant-foods  on 
vegetation,  87  —  Purchasing  of  fertilizers,  88  —  Fer- 
tilizer laws,  88  —  Fertilizer  equivalents,  90  —  Home- 
mixed  fertilizers,  90  —  Uses  of  lime,  93  —  Forms  of 
lime,  95  —  Quantity  of  lime  to  apply,  96  —  Questions, 
97  —  Exercises,  97  —  References,  97. 

CHAPTER   VI 

Indian  Corn,  or  Maize 98-129 

Corn-producing  localities,  99  —  Types  of  corn,  100 
—  Uses  of  corn,  103  —  Selection  of  variety  of  corn  for 
planting,  103  —  Selection  and  care  of  seed  corn,  104  — 
Testing  seed  corn  for  germination,  107  —  Soils  and  cli- 
mate for  corn,  112  —  Enriching  soils  for  corn,  112  — 
Preparation  of  land  for  corn,  112  —  Planting  the  seed, 
113  —  Cultivating  the  fields,  116  —  Harvesting  the 
crop,  117  —  Pests  of  corn,  120  —  Questions,  125  —  Ex- 
ercises, 125  —  References,  129. 


CHAPTER   VII 

Small  Grains 130-160 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  wheat,  132  — 
Kinds  of  wheat,  133  —  Uses  of  wheat,  135  —  Soils  for 
wheat,  135  —  Seeding  of  wheat,  136  —  Harvesting  of 
wheat,  139 —  Weeds  of  wheat  fields,  142  — Insects  of 
wheat  fields,  143  —  Fungous  diseases  of  wheat,  143  — 
Distribution,  yields,  and  characteristics  of  oats,  147  — 
Kinds  of  oats,  148  —  Uses  of  oats,  148  —  Climate  and 
soils  for  oats,  149  —  Preparing  the  ground  for  oats, 
149  —  Planting  oat  seed,  149  —  Harvesting  of  oats,  150 


Table  of  Contents 


XI 


—  Enemies  of  oats,  150  —  Distribution  and  character- 
istics of  rye,  151  —  Uses  of  rye,  151  —  Climate  and 
soils  for  rye,  152  —  Planting  rye  seed,  152  —  Harvest- 
ing of  rye,  152  —  Enemies  of  rye,  152  —  Distribution 
and  characteristics  of  barley,  153  —  Uses  of  barley, 
153  —  Climate  and  soils  for  barley,  154  —  Planting 
barley  seed,  154  —  Harvesting  of  barley,  154  —  Enemies 
of  barley,  155  —  Distribution  and  characteristics  of 
rice,  155  —  Uses  of  rice,  155  —  Climate  and  soils  for 
rice,  156  —  Cultural  methods  for  rice,  156  —  Distribu- 
tion and  characteristics  of  buckwheat,  157  —  Cultural 
methods  for  buckwheat,  158  —  Questions,  158  —  Ex- 
ercises, 159  —  References,  160. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Grasses  and  Sorghums 

Characteristics  of  grasses,  162  —  Number  of  grasses 
cultivated  for  hay  and  pasture,  163  —  Uses  of  grasses, 
163  —  Soils  for  grasses,  163  —  Purchasing  and  planting 
grass  seed,  164 — Harvesting  grass  crops  for  hay,  164 
—  Grasses  for  hay  and  pasture,  168  —  Description  of 
sorghums,  174  —  Broom  corn,  174  —  Saccharine  sor- 
ghums, 175  —  Non-saccharine  sorghums,  177  —  Ques- 
tions, 178  —  Exercises,  179  —  References,  181. 


161-181 


CHAPTER   IX 

Legumes       

Description  of  legumes,  182  —  Uses  of  legumes,  183 
—  Legumes  for  forage,  184  —  Questions,  197  —  Exercises, 
198  — References,  199. 


182-199 


CHAPTER   X 

Potatoes      200-215 

Distribution  of  white  potato  production,  201  — 
Yields  of  white  potatoes,  201  —  Climate  and  soils  for 
white  potatoes,  201  —  Fertilizing  the  land,  202  — 
Planting    white    potatoes,    202  —  Cultivating    potato 


Xll 


Table  of  Contents 


fields,  203  —  Harvesting  and  storing,  205  —  Insect 
pests  of  white  potatoes,  205  —  Diseases  of  white  po- 
tatoes, 206  —  Distribution  and  use  of  sweet  potatoes, 
207  —  Soils  for  sweet  potatoes,  208  —  Fertilizing  the 
land,  208  —  Cultural  methods,  208  —  Harvesting  and 
storing,  211  — Pests  of  the  sweet  potato,  213  —  Ques- 
tions, 213  —  Exercises,  214  —  References,  215. 


CHAPTER   XI 

Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  .... 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  sugar-cane,  217  — 
Uses  of  sugar-cane,  219  —  Soils  and  fertilizers,  219  — 
Cultural  methods  for  sugar-cane,  220  —  Harvesting  of 
sugar-cane,  221  —  Pests  of  sugar-cane,  222  —  The  cotton 
plant,  222  —  Types  of  cotton,  224  —  Uses  of  cotton, 
225  —  Soils  and  fertilizers,  226  —  Rotations  with  cot- 
ton, 227  —  Cultural  methods  for  cotton,  228  —  Harvest- 
ing of  cotton,  230  —  Pests  of  cotton,  230  —  Tobacco- 
growing  districts,  233  —  Classes  of  tobacco,  233  — 
Methods  of  securing  tobacco  seedlings,  234  —  Cultural 
methods  for  tobacco,  234  —  Harvesting  and  curing  of 
tobacco,  235  —  Questions,  237  —  Exercises,  237  —  Ref- 
erences, 240. 


216-240 


CHAPTER   XII 

Fruit-growing 241-276 

Classification  of  fruits,  242  —  Soils  for  fruit,  242  — 
Air  drainage  in  fruit-culture,  243  —  Pruning  of  fruit- 
trees,  243  —  Spraying  of  fruit-trees,  246  —  Spray 
schedules,  250  —  Cultural  methods,  255  —  Harvesting 
of  fruit,  260  —  Pests  of  fruit  plants,  261  —  Questions, 
271  —  Exercises,  271  —  References,  275. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

Vegetable-growing    .         . 

Market-gardening    and    truck-farming,    278  —  Soils 
for  vegetables,  278  —  Kinds  of  vegetable  crops,  279  — 


277-286 


Table  of  Contents 


Xlll 


The  farm-garden,  280  —  Planting-table  for  vegetables, 
282  —  Questions,  283  —  Exercises,  283  —  References, 
286. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

Feeding  Farm  Animals 

Importance  of  animal  feeding,  287  —  Functions  of 
feed,  288  —  Balanced  rations,  289  —  Kinds  of  feeds, 
290  —  Palatability  of  feed,  294  —  Effect  of  feed  on  the 
digestion,  295  —  Cost  of  feed,  295  —  Suiting  the  feed 
to  the  animal,  295  —  Digestibility  of  feed,  295  — 
Questions,  297  —  References,  298. 


287-298 


CHAPTER   XV 

Horses  .         .         .         .         .         . 

Types,  300  —The  draft  breeds,  303  —  The  heavy- 
harness  breeds,  307  —  The  light-harness  breed,  310  — 
The  saddle-horse  breeds,  311  —  Ponies,  314  —  Market 
classes  of  horses  and  mules,  315  —  Breaking  e.nd  train- 
ing colts,  317  —  Feeds  for  horses,  321  —  Time  to  water 
horses,  321  —  Soundness  in  horses,  323  —  Determining 
age  of  horses,  324  —  Questions,  326 — Exercises,  327  — 
References,  333. 


299-333 


CHAPTER   XVI 

Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle  ..... 
Types  of  cattle,  334  —  Conformation  of  beef  animals, 
335  —  Conformation  of  dual-purpose  animals,  337  — 
Breeds  of  beef  cattle,  337  —  Breeds  of  dual-purpose 
cattle,  342  —  Market  classes  and  grades  of  beef  cattle, 
344  —  Feeding  of  beef  cattle,  346  —  Rations  for  beef 
cattle,  346  —  Questions,  348  —  Exercises,  349  —  Ref- 
erences, 351. 


334-351 


CHAPTER   XVII 

Dairy  Cattle 

Conformation  of  dairy  cows,  353  —  Breeds  of  dairy 
cattle,  354  —  The  dairy  calf,  359  —  Feeding  dairy  cows 


352-374 


xiv  Table  of  Contents 


in  summer,  362  —  Feeding  dairy  cows  in  winter,  363  — 
Water  and  salt  for  cows,  368  —  Stables  for  dairy  cows, 
369  —  Questions,  371  —  Exercises,  371  —  References, 
373. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

Dairying 375-390 

Composition  of  milk,  375  —  Testing  of  milk  for  fat, 
377  —  Separation  of  cream  from  milk,  382  —  Bacteria 
in  milk,  382  —  Production  of  sanitary  milk,  383  — 
Pasteurization  of  milk,  385  —  Questions,  386  — 
Exercises,  386  —  References,  390. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Sheep 391-406 

Classes  of  sheep,  392  —  Middle-wool  breeds,  392  — 
Long-wool  breeds,  398  —  Fine-wool  breeds,  399  — 
Feeds  for  sheep,  401  —  Importance  of  shepherd  dogs, 
402  —  Sheep-killing  dogs,  402  —  Catching,  holding, 
and  leading  of  sheep,  403  —  Questions,  404  —  Ex- 
ercises, 404  —  References,  406. 


CHAPTER  XX 

Swine      .     . 407-424 

Lard-type  swine,  407  —  Bacon-type  swine,  412  — 
Regions  for  hog-raising,  413  —  Feeds  for  swine,  414  — 
Sanitation  in  the  hog  lot,  414  —  Hog  cholera,  415  — 
Mineral  matter  and  tonic  for  hogs,  420  —  Questions, 
421  —  Exercises,  421  —  References,  424. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

Poultry 425-442 

Types  of  poultry,  426  —  Breeds  of  chickens,  430  — 
Poultry    houses,    432  —  Natural    incubation,    432  — 


Table  of  Contents 


XV 


Natural  brooding,  435  —  Artificial  incubation,  437  — 
Artificial  brooding,  438  —  Feeding  for  egg  production, 
438  —  Feeding  for  meat  production,  440  —  Questions, 
440  —  Exercises,  442  —  References,  442. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

Farm  Machinery 

Lack  of  care  of  farm  machinery,  444  —  Plows,  445  — 
•  Harrows,  449  —  Cultivators,  452  —  Weeders,  454  — 
Planting  implements,  454  —  Hay-harvesting  machin- 
ery, 456  —  Small-grain,  corn,  and  potato  harvesters, 
457  —  Threshing  machines,  457  —  Farm  tractors,  458  — 
Questions,  460  —  Exercises,  460  —  References,  460. 


443-460 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

Farm  Management 461-470 

The  scope  of  farm  management,  461  —  Farming  as 
an  occupation,  462  —  Choice  of  a  region  for  farming, 
462  —  Choice  of  the  type  of  farming,  462  —  Choice  of 
the  farm,  462  —  Farm  tenancy,  463  —  Laying  out  the 
fields,  463  —  Kind  of  farm  equipment,  463  —  Farm 
labor,  464  —  Planning  a  cropping  system,  465  — 
Farm  accounts,  465  —  Farm  records,  466  —  The 
marketing  of  farm  products,  466  —  Questions,  467  — 
Exercises,  467  —  References,  470. 


APPENDIX 

Directory  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Addresses  of  the  State  Experiment  Stations 
The  Publications  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
Publishers  of  Agricultural  Books 


471 

472 
473 
476 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


*  Effective  Farming  " Frontispiece 

PIQ.  PAGE 

1.  A  sprouted  bean .13 

2.  Cross-section  of  a  germinating  maize  kernel     ...  14 

3.  Parts  of  the  white  potato  plant 16 

4.  Cutting  of  coleus 17 

5.  Simple  cuttings  of  the  grape 18 

6.  Mallet  and  heel  cuttings  of  the  currant      ....  19 

7.  Whip  grafting 21 

8.  Cleft  grafting 22 

9.  Bud  stick 24 

10.  Cutting  the  bud 24 

11.  Preparing  the  stock  and  inserting  the  bud           ...  24 

12.  A  budded  nursery  tree 25 

13.  A  practical  seed-tester  for  small  seeds         ....  27 

14.  Parts  of  a  sprouted  maize  kernel 27 

15.  The  plow  is  an  efficient  agent  for  pulverizing  the  soil        .  38 

16.  A  badly  washed  field 41 

17.  Vegetables  grown  under  irrigation 45 

18.  Furrow  irrigation  in  a  California  citrus  grove     .         .         .46 

19.  An  open  drainage  ditch  in  muck  soil  in  New  Jersey  .         .  47 

20.  Cowpea  root  showing  tubercles  ......  50 

21.  Apparatus  for  soil  exercises  with  water       ....  52 

22.  Benefits  of  green-manuring 63 

23.  Beneficial  effect  of  barnyard  manure           ....  68 

24.  A  lantern  slide  that  tells  a  story  of  waste  on  American 

farms      .......... 

25.  The  wrong  way  to  store  manure,  piling  it  by  the  roadside  . 

26.  Home-made  tank  wagon-box  for  hauling  fresh  manure  to 

the  fields  ......... 

27.  The  wrong  kind  of  barnyard 

28.  A  manure-spreader  means  a  saving  of  labor  and  evenness 

of  distribution  of  the  manure  ..... 

29.  Effect  of  commercial  fertilizer 

30.  Dent  corn       '......... 


73 

74 

75 
76 

77 

81 

100 


xviii  List  of  Illustrations 

FIG.  PAGE 

31.  Flint  corn 101 

32.  White  rice  pop-corn 102 

33.  Sweet  corn 102 

34.  Seed  corn  strung  with  binder  twine  .....  106 

35.  Seed  corn  on  racks  made  from  wire  fencing        .         .         .  107 

36.  Seed  corn  tested  in  the  sawdust  box  tester         .         .         .  108 

37.  Kernels  of  seed  corn  sprouted  in  the  sawdust  box  tester    .  109 

38.  The  rag-doll  seed  corn  tester 110 

39.  A  two-row  corn-planter  arranged  with  wire  to  drop  kernels 

into  hills  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .115 

40.  A  corn-cultivator  equipped  with  small  shovels  .         .         .116 

41.  A  corn-binder  with  bundle  elevator 117 

42.  Husking  corn  from  the  shock     .         .         .         .         .         .118 

43.  Filling  the  silo 119 

44.  Corn-smut .  124 

45.  Heads  of  beardless  winter  wheat         .....  133 

46.  Heads  of  bearded  winter  wheat 134 

47.  Heads  of  German  emmer,  spelt,  and  einkorn      .         .         .  135 

48.  Grain-drill 136 

49.  Grain-binders  in  a  wheat  field    ......  137 

50.  A  field  of  wheat  in  shock 138 

51.  Self -rake  reaper 139 

52.  A  threshing  scene 141 

53.  Loose  smut  of  wheat           .         .         .         .         .         .         .  144 

54.  Stinking  smut  of  wheat      .......  145 

55.  Spreading  oats  and  side  oats       ......  148 

56.  Mowers  in  a  hayfield 165 

57.  A  hay  field 166 

58.  Loading  hay  by  hand  .         .         .         .         .         .         .166 

59.  Loading  hay  with  a  hay  loader  ......  167 

60.  A  sweep-rake  bringing  the  hay  to  the  stacker    .         .         .  167 

61.  Stacking  hay 168 

62.  Timothy 169 

63.  Kentucky  blue-grass 169 

64.  Canada  blue-grass 170 

65.  Redtop 170 

66.  Orchard  grass •         •  171 

67.  Italian  rye-grass 171 

68.  Meadow-fescue 172 

69.  Tall  oat-grass 172 

70.  Brome-grass »  173 


Ldst  of  Illustrations  xix 

FIG.  PAGE 

71.  Bermuda-grass -         ,         .         .  173 

72.  Head  of  broom-corn  ........  174 

73.  Amber  sorghum           . 176 

74.  Orange  sorghum          ........  176 

75.  Heads  of  four  varieties  of  kafir 177 

76.  Case  for  storing  bottles  of  seeds 180 

77.  Red  clover 184 

78.  Crimson  clover 186 

79.  Alfalfa 187 

80.  An  alfalfa  field 188 

81.  Spotted  bur  clover 189 

82.  Toothed  bur  clover 190 

83.  Cowpeas .  191 

84.  Soybeans 192 

85.  Base  of  peanut  plant  showing  the  nuts       ....  194 

86.  Virginia  Bunch  peanuts      .  .         .         .         .         .         .  195 

87.  Method  of  stacking  peanut  vines 197 

88.  Potato-planter    .         .         . 203 

89.  Green  Mountain  potatoes 204 

90.  Potato-digger 205 

91.  Sweet  potato  slips  ready  for  setting  in  the  field  .         .  209 

92.  Sweet  potato  slips  in  a  hot-bed  ready  to  pull  for  trans- 

planting          .........  210 

93.  Setting  sweet  potato  slips  with  a  transplanter    .         .         .  211 

94.  Field  of  sugar-cane 218 

95.  Cotton  plant 223 

96.  Cotton  in  the  boll      .         .         .         .      '  .         .         .         .231 

97.  Field  of  tobacco .235 

98.  Harvesting  tobacco  by  cutting  the  stalk    ....  236 

99.  Peach  tree  in  need  of  pruning 243 

100.  Same  tree  as  shown  in  Fig.  99  after  pruning       .         .         .  244 

101.  Sprayed  trees 246 

102.  Unsprayed  trees  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  247 

103.  Gas-engine  sprayer .  248 

104.  Hand-power  sprayer  .  .......  248 

105.  Knapsack  sprayer       . 249 

106.  Rectangular,  quincunx,  and  triangular  systems  of  setting 

orchard  trees 257 

107.  Nursery  trees  trimmed  for  planting    .....  258 

108.  Sorting  table  lined  with  canvas .         .         ,         .         .         .  260 

109.  Fumigating  citrus  trees .  262 


XX  List  of  Illustrations 

PIG.  PAXJE 

110.  San  Jos6  scale  on  twig  (enlarged)        .         .         .         .         .  263 

111.  iCodlin-moth  larva  in  apple         ......  264 

112.  Young  apples  that  have  been  infested  with  the  first  brood 

of  codlin-moth 265 

113.  Nest  and  larvsB  of  apple-tree  tent-caterpillar  in  crotch  of 

wild  cherry  tree 266 

114.  Adult  curculios  on  a  young  peach  (enlarged)      .         .         .  267 

115.  The  peach  borer 268 

116.  Mummies  of  brown  rot  of  peach 270 

117.  Apparatus  for  determining   the  specific  gravity  of  lime 

sulfur  solution         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ,  273 

118.  Points  of  the  horse 301 

119.  Percheron  stallion 304 

120.  Clydesdale  stallion 304 

121.  Shire  stallion 305 

122.  Belgian  mare 306 

123.  Suffolk  stallion 307 

124.  Irving  model,  1090.     A  Hackney  pony  stallion .         .         .  308 

125.  German  Coach  stallion       .......  309 

126.  Standard-bred  horse 311 

127.  Thoroughbred  horse 312 

128.  American  saddle-horse        .......  312 

129.  Arabian  stallion 313 

130.  Points  of  beef  cattle,  side  view 335 

131.  Points  of  beef  cattle,  front  and  rear  view  ....  336 

132.  A  prime  steer 336 

133.  Cuts  of  beef 337 

134.  Shorthorn  bull 337 

135.  Polled  Durham  bull 338 

136.  Hereford  cow 339 

137.  Aberdeen-Angus  cow 341 

138.  Galloway  bull     .         .         . 341 

139.  Dual-purpose  Shorthorns 342 

140.  Red  Poll  cow 343 

141.  Dairy  cow,  showing  wedge-shape  form,  side  view       .         .  353 

142.  Points  of  the  dairy  cow 354 

143.  Jersey  cow,  Eminent's  Bess,  209,719           ....  355 

144.  Guernsey  cow,  Johanna  Chene,  30,889       ....  356 

145.  Holstein-Friesian  cow,  Dutchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  124,513  357 

146.  Prize-winning  Ayrshire  cows 358 

147.  Dairy  barn  plentifully  supplied  with  windows    .         .         .  369 


List  of  Illustrations  xxi 

f  IG.  PAG  B 

148.  A  modern  sanitary  dairy  barn 370 

149.  A  four-bottle  hand  power  tester 376 

150.  A  type  of  steam  tester 376 

151.  Type  of  Babcock  test  bottle 377 

152.  Types  of  Babcock  cream  test  bottles  ....  377 

153.  Pipette  used  in  measuring  milk  in  the  Babcock  test  .         .  378 

154.  Simple  acid  graduate 378 

155.  A  dipper  used  in  measuring  acid  in  the  Babcock  test  .  379 

156.  Burette  for  measuring  acid  in  the  Babcock  test  .         .  379 

157.  A  combined  bottle  and  acid  measure  ....  379 

158.  Type  of  knife-edge  cream  balance 380 

159.  The  right  way  of  adding  milk  to  the  test  bottle          .         .  380 

160.  The  wrong  way  of  adding  milk  to  the  test  bottle        .         .  380 

161.  Method  of  reading  fat  column  in  milk  testing    .         .         .  381 

162.  Dividers  for  measuring  length  of  fat  column       .         .         .  381 

163.  Method  of  reading  fat  column  in  cream  testing  .         .  382 

164.  Diagram  showing  the  rapidity  with  which  bacteria  multiply 

in  milk  not  properly  cooled 383 

165.  Clean  white  suits  and  small-top  milk  pails  used  in  a  sanitary 

dairy 384 

166.  Open  and  small-top  milk  pails 385 

167.  Points  of  the  sheep,  side  view 392 

168.  Points  of  the  sheep,  front  and  rear  views  ....  393 

169.  Southdown  sheep 394 

170.  Shropshire  ram 395 

171.  Hampshire  ewe  .........  395 

172.  Dorset  ewes .  396 

173.  Cheviot  ram 397 

174.  Leicester  ewe 398 

175.  Cotswoldram 399 

176.  Lincoln  ewe 400 

177.  Type  A,  Merino  ram  .......  400 

178.  Rambouillet  ewe .  401 

179.  Points  of  the  hog,  three-quarters  front  view       .         .         .  408 

180.  Points  of  the  hog,  side  view 408 

181.  Berkshire  sow .         .409 

182.  Poland-China  sow      . 409 

183.  Chester  white  swine 410 

184.  Duroc-Jersey  sow 411 

185.  Hampshire  boar 412 

186.  Yorkshire  sow 412 


xxii  List  of  Illustrations 


FIG.  PAGE 

187.  Glossary  chart  giving  the  names  of  the  various  sections  of 

a  male  fowl 426 

188.  Light  Brahma  male 427 

189.  Buff  cochin  male 428 

190.  White  Leghorn  male 429 

191.  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male 429 

192.  Rhode  Island  Red  male 429 

193.  White  Wyandotte  male 429 

194.  Bottom  view  of  a  walking  plow 445 

195.  Sulky  plow  (reversible) 446 

196.  A  ten-bottom  gang  plow  with  gasoline  tractor   .         .         .  447 

197.  Disc  plow 448 

198.  Subsoil  plow 449 

199.  Disc  harrow .         .  449 

200.  Cutaway  disc  harrow 450 

201.  Spring- tooth  harrow  ........  450 

202.  Spike-tooth  harrow 451 

203.  "Acme"  harrow  .         .         .         .         ...         .         .  452 

204.  One-horse  cultivator 452 

205.  One-row  straddle  cultivator 453 

206.  Two-row  straddle  cultivator 453 

207.  Weeder 454 

208.  One-horse  corn-planter 455 

209.  A  tractor  pulling  six  seeders       ......  458 

210.  A  tractor  as  source  of  power  for  threshing  .         .         .  459 


LIST   OF   TABLES 

Table  Page 

L    The  Composition  of  Fresh  Manure          ....  70 

II.    Comparison  of  Protected  and  Exposed  Manure.     Per- 
centages of  Loss 73 

III.  Fertilizer  Equivalents .  90 

IV.  Planting  Table  for  Vegetables 284 

V.    Composition  of  Grains    .......  290 

VI.    Composition  of  By-Product  Feeds           ....  291 

VII.    Composition  of  Hays 292 

VIII.    Composition  of  Straws  and  Corn  Stover         .         .         .  293 

IX.    Composition  of  Green  Crops           .....  294 

X.    Digestible  Nutrients  of  Feeds 296 

XI.   Market  Classes  of  Horses  and  Mules  with  Limits  in 

Height  and  Weight     .         .         .         .         .         .         .316 

XII.    Rations  for  Horses .  322 

XIII.  Location  of  the  Common  Unsoundnesses  and  Faults 

of  Horses 324 

XIV.  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Beef  Cattle      .         .         .  345 
XV.   American  Breeds  of  Chickens          .         ....  430 

XVI.    Size  of  Farm  and  Labor  Income     .         .         .         .         .  .  464 

XVII.    Size  of  Farm  and  Efficiency  of  Man  Labor     .         .         .  464 

XVIII.    Size  of  Farm  and  Efficiency  of  Horse  Labor  .         .         .  465 


xxiu 


EFFECTIVE  FARMING 


CHAPTER  I 
GENERAL  VIEW 

Agriculture  fundamental. 

Agriculture  as  art,  science,  and  business. 

Divisions  of  agriculture. 

Farm  possibilities. 

Very  interesting  and  important  is  the  study  of  agriculture. 
It  is  essentially  a  study  of  nature.  The  scene  of  agriculture 
is  the  out-of-doors.  It  is  associated  with  weather,  clouds, 
sun,  and  open  sky.  It  is  founded  on  the  soil,  itself  so  complex 
that  we  do  not  yet  understand  it  fully ;  in  the  soil  the  changes 
are  involved,  due  to  many  chemical  reactions,  the  movement 
of  fluids,  and  the  work  of  milUons  of  microorganisms,  all  modi- 
fied by  rainfall,  frost  and  heat,  structure,  action  of  roots, 
manipulation  by  the  farmer,  and  many  other  conditions.  Every 
seed  is  a  mystery,  containing  within  itself  a  living  plant  pos- 
sessing wonderful  possibilities.  Under  the  proper  conditions, 
this  seed  grows,  the  resulting  plant  bearing  stems  and  leaves 
and  flowers  and  fruit,  all  fashioned  out  of  the  abundant  atmos- 
phere and  earth.  Many  of  these  plants  become  the  food  of 
animals,  and  their  elements  later  appear  in  meat,  milk,  wool, 
and  in  the  muscles  and  the  power  to  pull  a  load.  Constant 
change  is  the  order  of  nature ;  the  farmer  utilizes  these  changes 
in  the  production  of  his  crops  and  live-stock.  The  better  he 
understands  them,  the  greater  success  and  satisfaction  should 
he  have  in  his  work. 

1.  Agriculture  fundamental.  —  Agriculture  is  the  produc- 
tion of  plants  and  animals  useful  to  man,  together  with  the 

B  1 


2  ^    .  c^  .  ^Effective  Farming 

marketing  alid  'other  practices  that  appertain  thereto.  It  is 
fundamentally  the  most  important  occupation,  for  practically 
all  others  depend  on  it  and  it  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  race.  Mining,  manufacturing,  and  commerce  would  soon 
cease  were  it  not  for  the  farmer.  Not  only  most  of  the  food, 
but  also  much  of  the  material  used  in  manufacturing  and  the 
arts  is  produced  out  of  the  land  by  the  hand  of  the  farmer. 
Garfield  has  aptly  said,  "  At  the  head  of  all  sciences  and  arts, 
at  the  head  of  civilization  and  progress  stands  —  not  militarism, 
the  science  that  kills,  not  commerce,  the  art  that  accumulates 
wealth  —  but  agriculture,  the  mother  of  all  industry,  and  the 
maintainer  of  human  life." 

2.  Agriculture  as  art,  science,  and  business.  —  Agriculture 
is  an  art,  the  application  of  science,  and  a  business.  Art  has 
to  do  with  skill  gained  through  practice.  Science  considers 
the  reasons  for  all  the  operations.  Biolog>^,  chemistry,  physics, 
and  meteorology  contribute  directly  to  what  may  be  termed 
the  collective  science  of  agriculture.  Investigation  in  the 
laboratory  and  the  field  has  yielded  much  information  useful 
to  the  farmer  and  this  knowledge,  coupled  with  statements 
of  methods  and  records  of  experience,  has  been  arranged  and 
published  in  books  and  bulletins  which  are  available  for  study. 

The  business  side  of  farming  is  no  less  important  than  the 
art  and  science  phases.  A  farmer  may  be  skillful  in  his  farm 
operations  and  have  good  understanding  of  the  scientific  prin- 
ciples involved,  but  may  fail  on  account  of  lack  of  business,  or 
commercial,  ability.  The  commercial  side  involves  executive 
power  of  a  high  order  in  the  managing  of  men,  the  systematiz- 
ing of  farm  work,  the  purchasing  of  supplies,  the  keeping  of 
records  and  accounts,  and  the  packing  and  marketing  of  produce. 

Not  only  should  the  farmer  produce  crops  and  animals,  but 
he  should  do  this  effectively,  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time 
and  effort  to  accomplish  a  given  result.  He  should  maintain 
the  fertility  of  the  land,  not  only  for  the  production  of  larger 
yields  for  himself,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  to  come 


General  View  3 

after  him.  The  farm  is  an  estabUshment  in  itself  in  which  the 
good  countryman  has  pride  and  into  which  he  puts  his  best 
efforts  as  a  man. 

Farmers  too  often  Hve  and  farm  according  to  rules  and 
methods  established  by  their  forefathers,  and  such  persons  often 
fail  to  profit  by  the  discoveries  and  methods  of  modern  agri- 
culture. If  North  America  is  to  maintain  its  place  in  feeding 
and  clothing  its  own  population  and  in  adding  to  the  supply 
of  other  countries,  the  farmers  of  the  future  must  be  thor- 
oughly trained  to  their  occupation. 

3.  Divisions  of  agriculture.  —  Agriculture  is  grouped  into 
crop  husbandry,  animal  husbandry,  and  agricultural  manu- 
facture. Crop  husbandry  is  subdivided  into  grain-growing, 
fruit-growing,  fiber-crop  production,  forestry,  floriculture, 
and  other  branches.  Animal  husbandry  includes  dairy  pro- 
duction, beef-raising,  sheep-raising,  swine-raising,  poultry- 
raising,  and  bee-keeping.  The  manufacture  of  agricultural 
products  deals  with  butter-making,  cheese-making,  ice-cream 
making,  the  manufacture  of  evaporated  milk  and  evaporated 
fruits,  and  the  home  weaving  of  cotton  and  other  textiles  into 
thread  and  cloth.  Naturally  these  groups  and  subdivisions 
overlap  and  individual  farmers  often  produce  many  kinds  of 
farm  crops  and  manufactured  products,  and  raise  live-stock 
as  well.  For  example,  a  farmer  may  be  a  fruit-grower  and  a 
poultryman,  a  dairyman  and  a  manufacturer  of  butter  and 
cheese,  a  grain-grower  and  a  producer  of  both  beef  and  grain. 
Or  he  may  be  a  specialist  and  produce  only  one  kind  of  crop. 
Thus  he  may  be  a  market-gardener  and  not  grow  enough  grain 
to  feed  his  own  teams,  or  a  fruit-grower  exclusively,  or  a  poultry- 
man  who  has  only  a  few  acres  and  buys  all  the  feed  for  his  fowls. 
The  scientific  principles  of  agriculture  apply  equally  to  many 
kinds  of  farming.  As  examples,  the  considerations  underlying 
soil  improvement  relate  as  well  to  grain-growing  as  to  fruit 
or  vegetable  production,  the  principles  of  nutrition  are  as 
important  to  the  farmer  producing  beef  cattle  as  to  the  dairy- 


4  Effective  Farming 

man,  the  underlying  facts  in  the  control  of  insects  and  plant 
diseases  apply  over  a  very  wide  range  of  crops. 

4.  Farm  possibilities.  —  The  farmer  lives  on  his  farm,  de- 
veloping his  home  and  all  its  surroundings.  This  home  should 
be  convenient,  comfortable,  and  attractive.  He  has  relation 
to  highways,  telephones,  mail  routes,  neighbors,  churches, 
schools,  societies,  fairs,  farm-bureaus,  markets,  and  transporta- 
tion. All  the  affairs  and  activities  of  the  farmers,  of  their 
families  and  helpers,  constitute  an  agricultural  life.  This 
life  is  as  important  to  the  nation  as  the  products  that  the  farm- 
ers raise.  The  farmer  cannot  confine  himself  within  his  own 
fences.  He  is  part  of  the  community  and  is  under  obligation 
to  take  part  in  its  activities. 

The  crops  and  animals  are  to  be  of  the  best.  The  farmer 
himself  is  also  to  be  well  reared,  well  educated,  well  fed,  well 
clothed.  His  family  is  to  be  provided  with  a  good  dwelling, 
good  books  and  periodicals,  good  pictures,  good  music,  good 
grounds  and  yards.  The  faiTQ  people  are  to  derive  the  greatest 
satisfaction  from  their  occupation,  not  only  in  money,  but  in 
home  comforts,  in  the  appreciation  of  nature,  and  in  the  desir- 
able things  of  life.   • 

REFERENCES 

Crissey,  Forrest,  The  Story  of  Foods.    Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 
Sanford,  Albert  H.,  The  Story  of  Agriculture.     D.  C.  Heath  and  Co. 
Smith,  J.  Russell,  Commerce  and  Industry.     Henry  Holt  and  Co. 
Bowsfield,  C.  C,  Making  the  Farm  Pay.     Forbes  and  Co. 
Halligan,  J.  E.,  Fundamentals  of  Agriculture.     D.  C.  Heath  and  Co. 
McBryde,  J.  B.,  Elements  of  Agriculture.    B.  F.  Johnson  PubUshing  Co. 
Fisher,  M.  L.,  and  Cotton,  F.  A.,  Agriculture  for  Common  Schools. 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
McMahon,  J.  R.,  Success  in  the  Suburbs.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 


CHAPTER   II 

PLANT    STUDY 

Elements  and  compounds. 
Classes  of  compounds  in  plants. 

Water,  ash,  carbohydrates,  fat,  protein. 

Materials  determined  by  the  chemist. 
Structure  and  functions  of  plant  parts. 

Cells  of  plants. 

Epidermis  and  bark  of  plants. 

Function  of  roots. 

Function  of  stems. 

Function  of  leaves. 

Function  of  flowers. 

The  buds. 
Propagation  by  spores. 
Propagation  by  seeds. 

Conditions  necessary  for  germination. 

Storing  of  seeds. 

Quality  of  seeds  to  purchase. 
Propagation  of  field,  vegetable,  and  greenhouse  crops  by  division. 

Division  of  the  crown. 

Specialized  buds. 

Fleshy  roots. 

Herbaceous  cuttings. 

Tillers  and  rootstocks. 
Propagation  of  fruit  plants  by  division. 

Hardwood  stem  cuttings. 

Root  cuttings. 

Layers. 

Grafts. 

Buds. 

List  of  commercial  methods. 

Crops  are  the  products  of  plants.  In  some  eases  the  product 
is  the  fruit,  as  the  apple  and  Indian  corn ;  in  others,  the  root, 
as  turnip  and  beet ;  in  others,  the  leaves,  as  lettuce  and  tobacco ; 

5 


6  Effective  Farming 


I 


in  others,  the  fiber  on  the  seeds  or  in  the  stem,  as  cotton  and 
hemp ;  in  others,  the  seed  itself,  as  beans  and  peas ;  in  others, 
the  entire  herbage  above  ground,  as  alfalfa,  timothy,  june- 
grass.  In  other  cases,  the  product  is  a  manufactured  com- 
modity, as  sugar.  The  study  of  plants  is  fundamental  to  the 
study  of  crops.  One  does  not  understand  nature  until  one 
knows  something  about  plants.  The  earth  is  covered  with 
vegetation ;  the  vacant  lot  soon  becomes  covered  with  weeds. 
All  the  plants,  of  so  many  thousand  kinds,  take  nourishment 
from  the  soil  and  the  air.  They  hve  and  grow  and  multiply 
their  kind.  We  could  not  live  on  the  earth  were  it  not  so. 
The  processes  in  plant  life  are  therefore  very  important  for  us 
to  know  before  we  proceed. 

5.  Elements  and  compounds.  —  Before  taking  up  the  study 
of  plants,  it  will  be  well  to  recall  a  few  principles  of  physics  and 
chemistry.  All  substances  in  nature  are  subject  to  changes  in 
form  and  composition.  When  a  piece  of  iron  is  broken  or 
crushed  the  form  is  changed,  but  each  particle  has  the  same 
composition  as  before.  This  change  is  physical.  If  the  piece 
of  iron  is  left  out  of  doors,  rust  forms  on  its  surface.  This  is 
a  different  substance  from  iron ;  it  is  composed  of  iron  and 
oxygen,  the  oxygen  coming  from  the  air.  Such  a  change  in 
composition  is  chemical.  The  simplest  form  in  which  matter 
can  exist  is  as  an  element ;  the  chemical  union  of  two  or  more 
elements  forms  a  compound.  In  nature  there  are  only  about 
eighty  different  elements,  but  there  are  many  compounds. 
When  compounds  or  elements  mix  physically  and  do  not  unite 
chemically,  a  mechanical  mixture  is  formed.  The  air  is  an 
example  of  this,  as  it  is  made  up  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon 
dioxide,  and  some  other  gases,  but  they  are  not  united 
chemically. 

6.  Classes  of  compounds  in  plants.  —  Analyses  of  plants 
show  many  different  compounds,  but  these  can  be  grouped  into 
five  classes  known  as :  water,  ash,  carbohydrates,  fat,  and 
protein. 


Plant  Study  7 

Water  in  plants.  —  Water  is  composed  of  the  elements,  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen.  It  not  only  forms  a  part  of  the  body  of  the 
plant,  but  carries  dissolved  food  to  all  parts  —  root,  stem,  and 
leaves  —  and  regulates  the  temperature  of  the  plant  during 
growth. 

Ash  in  plants.  —  The  mineral  matter  of  plants  is  the  ash. 
It  is  that  portion  that  remains  after  the  plant  has  been  burned 
and  includes  all  the  materials,  except  water  and  nitrogen,  that 
the  plant  takes  from  the  soil.  The  elements  in  the  ash  of 
plants  are  potassium,  phosphorus,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron, 
sulfur,  sodium,  chlorine,  silicon,  manganese,  and  aluminum. 

Carbohydrates  in  plants.  —  The  carbohydrates  are  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  They  -  include  chiefly 
starches,  sugars,  cellulose,  and  pentosans.  Starch  in  its  vari- 
ous forms  is  more  or  less  familiar  to  all  and  is  found  most 
largely  in  the  seeds,  roots,  and  tubers.  Plant-sugar  includes 
cane-sugar,  beet-sugar,  maple-sugar,  and  glucose.  Cellulose 
is  the  fiber  of  plants.  It  is  found  more  largely  in  the  stems  and 
leaves  than  in  the  seeds.  It  is  neither  soluble  nor  digestible. 
Pentosans  aid  the  cellulose  in  giving  form  to  the  plant-tissue; 
they  are  insoluble  in  pure  water,  but  soluble  in  dilute  acid. 
When  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  juices  in  the  animal-body, 
they  are  dissolved  and  are  useful  as  nourishment. 

Fat  in  plants.  —  In  nearly  all  plants  fat  is  present.  It  is 
found  more  largely  in  the  seeds  than  in  the  other  parts.  Flax, 
rape,  and  cotton  seeds  are  rich  in  fat.  The  percentage  in  plants 
varies  considerably.  In  tubers  it  is  sometimes  a  few  hundredths 
of  one  per  cent,  while  in  the  flaxseed  it  is  thirty-five  per  cent. 
Corn  is  often  five  per  cent  fat,  wheat  two  per  cent,  hay  about 
one  and  one-half  per  cent,  and  straw  less  than  one-half  per  cent. 

Protein  in  plants.  —  The  term  protein  is  used  to  designate 
those  organic  compounds  that  contain  the  four  elements,  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  Some  contain  phos- 
phorus, sulfur,  or  iron  in  addition.  Protein  is  a  general  term 
and  the  number  of  compounds  included  in  this  group  is  very 


8  Effective  Farming 

large.  Because  of  the  presence  of  nitrogen  in  all  the  com- 
pounds, they  are  often  termed  nitrogenous,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  others  which  are  termed  non-nitrogenous  compounds. 
None  of  the  other  classes  contains  nitrogen. 

Materials  determined  by  the  chemist.  —  When  making  chemi- 
cal analyses  of  plants,  the  chemist  determines  the  water,  ash, 
protein,  ether-extract,  crude-fiber,  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 
The  meaning  of  the  last  three  terms  requires  some  explanation. 
Ether-extract  is  apphed  to  those  compounds  that  are  soluble 
in  ether.  They  are  largely  fats,  but  as  yet  the  chemist  is  unable 
to  determine  the  quantity  of  pure  fat  in  all  substances.  Crude- 
fiber  includes  cellulose  and  some  other  bodies  that  make  up 
the  frame-work  of  vegetable  tissue.  Nitrogen-free  extract 
is  composed  of  compounds  that  contain  no  nitrogen  and  these 
are  largely  starch,  sugar,  and  pentosans. 

7.  Structure  and  functions  of  plant  parts.  —  When  a  very 
small  portion  of  plant  substance  is  examined  under  a  microscope 
of  high  power,  it  is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  a  large  number  of 
divisions  more  or  less  clearly  defined.  These  are  called  cells. 
In  a  transverse  section  they  present  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  the  cells  of  a  honey-comb,  which  accounts  for  the  name. 
The  higher  plants  are  composed  of  many  cells  of  different 
forms;  some  of  the  lower  plants  consist  of  but  a  single  cell; 
others,  of  a  single  row  of  cells.  A  cell  is  surrounded  by  a  cell- 
wall  and,  in  the  case  of  live  cells,  the  interior  is  a  semi-liquid, 
translucent  substance  called  protoplasm.  Growth  in  plants 
may  occur  either  by  the  expansion  or  by  the  multiplication  of 
cells,  which  takes  place  either  by  the  dividing  of  old  cells  into 
two  or  more  smaller  ones  or  by  the  forming  of  new  cells  within 
old  ones,  these  new  cells  in  either  case  enlarging  later  to  full  size. 

Epidermis  and  hark  of  plants.  —  Succulent  parts  of  plants 
are  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  known  as  the  epidermis,  which 
extends  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  leaves,  stem,  and  roots. 
This  skin  is  made  up  of  fairly  thick-walled  cells  that  protect 
the  more  deUcate  interior  parts.     In  the  older  stems  of  woody 


Plant  Study  9 

plants  the  epidermis  is  replaced  by  bark.  Beneath  the  bark 
is  a  layer  of  cells  called  the  cambium-layer,  forming  the  growing 
tissue  of  the  plant  cylinder. 

Minute  openings,  known  as  stomata  (singular,  stoma),  are 
found  in  the  epidermis  of  the  leaves.  These  openings  are 
extremely  small  and  the  number  on  a  leaf  is  very  large ;  it  has 
been  found  that  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  are  present  on 
the  under  surface  of  an  apple  leaf.  The  water  that  passes  from 
the  plant  as  vapor  and  the  oxygen  set  free  in  the  elaboration 
of  food  in  the  leaves  escape  from  these  openings,  and  carbon 
dioxide  from  the  air  passes  into  the  plants  through  them. 

Function  of  roots.  —  The  roots  have  two  very  important 
functions.  They  anchor  the  plants  in  the  ground  and  serve 
to  supply  them  with  water  in  which  is  dissolved  the  food  that 
is  taken  up  from  the  soil.  The  root  system  is  made  up  of  the 
main  roots  and  branching  parts  that  penetrate  the  soil  in  all 
directions.  On  these  small  branching  parts  are  found  tiny 
root-hairs  that  penetrate  between  the  soil  particles  and  absorb 
water  containing  plant-food,  which  is  carried  up  into  the  plant 
as  sap.  As  many  as  twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand  root- 
hairs  may  be  present  on  a  square  inch  of  root  surface.  Each 
root-hair  consists  of  a  single  elongated  cell.  As  the  end  of 
the  root  advances  through  the  soil,  new  root-hairs  are  formed 
beyond  the  older  ones  and  those  farther  back  die. 

Water  from  the  soil  passes  through  the  cell-walls  of  the  root- 
hairs  by  what  is  known  as  osmotic  pressure.  When  two  liquids 
of  different  densities  are  separated  by  a  semi-permeable  mem- 
brane, there  is  a  movement  of  the  less  dense  solution  toward 
the  more  dense.  This  is  known  as  osmosis.  That  liquids 
move  as  just  described  can  be  proved  by  tying  a  piece  of  pig's 
bladder  that  has  been  soaked  in  water  over  the  end  of  a  thistle- 
tube,  filling  the  tube  with  a  sugar  sirup  until  it  stands  in  the 
neck  of  the  tube,  and  placing  the  tube,  bell-end  down,  in  the 
water.  A  large-mouthed  bottle  fitted  with  a  cork  through  which 
the  tube  can  extend  is  a  convenient  receptacle  to  hold  the  water. 


10  Effective  Farming 

There  will  be  an  exchange  of  liquids  through  the  bladder, 
which  will  be  indicated  by  a  rise  of  the  liquid  in  the  tube. 
In  this  way  water  with  dissolved  plant-food  passes  into  the 
root  through  the  root-hairs.  The  walls  of  the  root-hairs  are 
a  semi-permeable  membrane  and  the  sap  in  the  plants  is  of 
greater  density  than  the  water  solution  in  the  soil.  Conse- 
quently there  is  a  passing  of  water  and  dissolved  plant-food 
into  the  root. 

Function  of  stems.  —  In  most  species  of  plants  the  stem  is 
the  part  that  supports  the  leaves.  However,  in  some  kinds, 
the  Irish  potato  and  Bermuda-grass  for  example,  underground 
stems  develop,  and  in  certain  cacti  the  stem  and  leaves  are  one. 

The  parts  of  a  stem  where  leaf  or  leaves  or  other  stems  are 
attached  are  called  nodes  and  the  space  between  adjacent 
nodes,  an  internode.  Examine  several  species  of  plants  and 
locate  these  parts. 

Function  of  leaves.  —  The  leaves  are  a  very  wonderful  labora- 
tory where  important  changes  occur.  The  food  that  is  taken 
from  the  soil  and  carried  in  the  sap  and  the  carbon  dioxide 
that  passes  from  the  air  into  the  leaves  through  the  stomata 
are  united  chemically  in  the  leaves  and  form  the  various  com- 
pounds of  which  the  plant  body  is  composed.  Thus  we  might 
think  of  the  leaves  as  the  stomach  of  the  plant.  Chlorophyl, 
the  green  coloring  matter  of  plants,  is  necessary  in  the  chemical 
change  that  takes  place.  Chlorophyl  forms  only  in  the  light. 
The  process  by  which  plants  manufacture  the  food  compounds 
is  called  photosynthesis. 

The  changed  food  material  is  carried  from  the  leaves  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  plant  where  it  is  used  to  build  up 
the  plant  body.  In  the  elaboration  of  plant-food  not  all  the 
water  absorbed  by  the  root-hairs  is  required  and  the  surplus 
and  also  some  uncombined  oxygen  pass  off  through  the  stomata 
into  the  air. 

Function  of  flowers.  —  Flowers  are  the  reproductive  organs 
of  the  plant.     They  are  classified  as  complete  and  incomplete. 


Plant  Study  11 

A  complete  flower  consists  of  four  parts — calyx,  corolla,  stamens, 
and  pistils.  Cherry,  apple,  and  cotton  blossoms  are  examples 
of  this  class.  With  a  complete  flower  before  you,  locate  the  dif- 
ferent parts  as  described  here.  The  calyx  is  usually  green  and 
consists  of  leaf-like  parts,  the  sepals,  surrounding  the  stem 
at  the  bottom  of  the  blossom.  The  corolla  is  the  spreading 
part  just  above  the  calyx.  It  consists  of  the  petals,  which  are 
often  white  or  bright-colored.  Inside  the  corolla  is  a  group  of 
slender  parts  called  stamens.  These  are  the  male  organs  of 
reproduction.  Each  stamen  is  made  up  of  three  parts  :  the  long 
slender  stalk  that  connects  with  the  stem  is  the  filament  (some- 
times absent) ;  the  enlarged  part  at  the  top  of  the  filament  is 
the  anther  ;  the  yellow  dust  of  the  anther  is  the  poUen.  Inside 
the  group  of  stamens  in  the  middle  of  the  flower  are  the  pistils 
or,  in  some  cases,  only  one  pistil.  These  are  the  female  organs 
of  reproduction.  The  parts  of  a  pistil  are  the  ovary,  which  is 
at  the  base  of  the  pistil,  and  the  style,  which  is  the  slender  part 
that  supports  the  enlarged  flattened  summit  called  the  stigma. 
The  ovary  contains  the  ovules  that  when  properly  fertilized, 
as  described  later,  develop  into  the  seeds. 

Flowers  of  certain  species  vary  considerably  from  those  of 
the  apple,  cherry,  and  cotton.  The  petals  may  not  be  uniform 
in  size  or  may  be  wanting.  Certain  parts  of  the  flower,  in  some 
species,  are  lacking  ;  the  corolla  may  be  absent ;  there  may  be 
neither  calyx  nor  corolla ;  some  flowers  have  no  stamens  ;  some 
have  no  pistils.  If  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  different  flowers, 
termed  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers,  they  are  known  as 
imperfect  flowers.  If  the  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  on 
the  same  individual,  the  plant  is  said  to  be  monoecious ;  if  on 
different  plants,  dioecious. 

The  union  of  the  male  cell  and  the  female  cell  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  embryo  of  a  seed  is  known  as  fertilization.  This  is 
accomplished  after  the  pollen  is  carried  to  the  stigma.  During 
a  certain  period  of  growth,  the  surface  of  the  stigma  is  moist 
and,  if  a  fertile  pollen  grain  adheres  to  the  stigma  at  this  time, 


12  Effective  Farming 

a  slender  projection  of  the  pollen-cell  penetrates  the  stigma, 
passes  through  it  to  the  ovule,  and  the  egg-cell  is  fertihzed. 
The  fertilized  egg-cells  develop  into  the  seeds.  The  distribution 
of  the  pollen  is  called  pollination  and  takes  place  for  the  most 
part  by  means  of  the  wind  or  insects.  In  flowers  that  are 
pollinated  by  the  wind,  the  petals  are  usually  inconspicuous 
in  color,  while  those  pollinated  by  insects  are  usually  bright 
in  color  or  fragrant.     Why  is  this  ? 

The  huds.  —  A  bud  is  a  condensed  body  containing  rudi- 
mentary parts  which  represent  leaves  or  flowers.  Such  a 
body  at  the  end  of  a  twig  is  a  terminal  bud,  one  at  the  junction 
of  a  leaf  with  the  stem  is  a  lateral  bud.  Under  the  stimulus  of 
vigorous  root  pressure,  buds  may  be  formed  along  the  inter- 
nodes.  For  example  a  willow  cut  off  early  in  the  growing  sea- 
son will  develop  buds  at  the  top  of  the  stump;  or  when  trees 
have  been  severely  pruned  water-sprouts  may  form  along 
the  branches ;  or  in  the  case  of  a  frosted  tree  a  circle  of  shoots 
may  spring  up  around  the  base  of  the  tree.  Such  buds  are 
called  adventitious.  In  propagation  by  division  of  the  plant, 
adventitious  buds  are  often  utihzed.     (S3e  paragraph  10.) 

8.  Propagation  by  spores.  —  Spores  are  the  organs  by  means 
of  which  the  fungi  propagate.  They  are  small  seed-like  bodies 
that,  under  favorable  conditions,  send  out  thread-like  germinat- 
ing tubes  which,  on  penetrating  a  suitable  host,  draw  nourish- 
ment from  it.  Spores  differ  from  seeds  because  they  do  not 
contain  an  embryo,  or  undeveloped  plant.  This  method  of  propa- 
gation is  not  of  direct  importance  so  far  as  the  production  of 
crops  other  than  mushrooms  is  concerned ;  it  is  indirectly  im- 
portant, however,  because  it  is  the  means  of  reproduction  of 
many  of  the  diseases  of  higher  plants,  such  as  rust,  leaf-spot, 
mildew,  and  scab.  All  the  so-called  fiowerless  plants,  as  ferns, 
mosses,  and  sea- weeds,  propagate  by  spores.  The  spore  is  not 
usually  the  direct  result  of  fertilization. 

9.  Propagation  by  seeds.  —  Nature's  primary  method  of 
multiplying  the  higher  plants  is  by  seeds.     Nearly  all  of  these 


Plant  Study  13 

plants  produce  seeds.  However,  in  farm  practice  it  has  been 
found  that  some  plants  can  be  propagated  better  commercially 
by  dividing  them.  (See  paragraph  10.)  Annual  plants  such 
as  corn,  small  grains,  and  most  vegetables  are  usually  propa- 
gated by  seeds. 

In  every  live  seed  is  the  embryo,  or  germ,  which  is  really  a 
Uving  undeveloped  plant.  The  seed  also  contains  stored-up 
food  material  (starch  and  oil  largely)  that  can  be  used  by  the 
embryo  while  the  seed  is  sprouting  and  by  the  plantlet  until  it 
can  secure  nourishment  from  the  soil  and  air.  When  live  seeds 
are  placed  in  a  warm,  moist,  well  ventilated  soil,  they  germinate 
or  sprout.  They  can  also  be  sprouted  by  placing  them  between 
pieces  of  cloth  or  blotting-paper  and  keeping  moist  and  warm. 
When  sprouted  seeds  are  examined,  it  is  seen  that  the  seed- 
coats  have  broken  and  tiny  shoots  have  burst  through 
the  opening.  The  embryo  of  a  seed  consists  of  three  parts : 
the  radicle,  also  known  as  the  cauUcle  and  as  the  hypocotyl, 
the  part  that  develops  into  the  root;  the  plumule,  the  part 
that  develops  into  the  stem  and  leaves ;  the 
cotyledons  (in  some  species  of  plants  only 
one  cotyledon  is  present),  the  seed  leaves 
that  nourish  the  young  plant.  A  sprouted 
bean  (Fig.  1)  may  be  examined  to  learn  the 

three  parts.     The  slender  stem-like  part  is    -pio.  i. A  sprouted 

the  radicle,  the  two  tiny  leaves  between  the  bean,  a,  radicle; 
halves  of  the  bean  form  the  plumule  (in  the  ledons!  ^'  ^'^^  ^ 
illustration  the  plumule  is  shown  outside  the 
bean),  and  the  halves  of  the  bean  are  the  cotyledons.  When 
a  planted  bean  grows,  the  cotyledons  are  brought  above  the 
ground  and,  as  the  plant  continues  to  develop,  they  shrink  in 
size,  the  stored-up  food  they  contain  being  used  by  the  plant 
until  it  obtains  sufficient  nourishment  from  the  soil.  In  some 
cases  the  stored-up  food  is  separate  from  the  embryo,  as  in 
the  corn.  A  corn  kernel  in  cross-section  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
The  caulicle,  plumule,  and   cotyledon   (corn  has  one  cotyle- 


14 


Effective  Farming 

The  stored-up  food  is  called  the 


don)   are  .plainly  marked, 
endosperm. 

Conditions  necessary  for  germination.  —  Moisture,  warmth, 
and  oxygen  are  necessary  for  the  germination  of  seeds.  Live 
seeds  will  not  germinate  if  kept  dry ;  they  must  absorb  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  water  before  the  seed-coat  will  burst  and  the 
plumule  and  caulicle  emerge.  The  seeds  of  different  species 
of  plants  vary  as  to  the  temperature  at  which  they  will  sprout ; 


Fig.  2.  —  Cross-section  of  a  germinating  maizD  kernel.     A,  endosperm  ; 
Cot,  cotyledon ;  Cau,  caulicle,  or  radicle  ;  PI,  plumule. 

some  seeds,  like  those  of  the  sweet  pea,  will  sprout  at  a  rela- 
tively low  temperature,  while  others,  cotton  for  example,  re- 
quire a  higher  temperature.  Seeds  will  not  sprout  in  a  medium 
that  does  not  contain  oxygen.  In  soil  of  good  tilth  air,  and 
therefore  oxygen,  is  present  in  the  spaces  between  the  soil 
particles.  In  a  soil  saturated  with  water,  the  air  has  been 
crowded  out  and  seeds  planted  in  such  soil  will  not  germinate, 
because  of  the  lack  of  oxygen. 

Storing  of  seeds.  —  Seeds  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  dry  place 
where  they  can  be  protected  from  rats,  mice,  and  other  pests. 
Both  warmth  and  moisture  are  to  be  avoided  in  a  storage  house. 
Warm,  moist  seeds  that  are  subjected  soon  after  to  freezing 


Plant  Study  15 

are  very  likely  to  be  injured  for  germinating  purposes.  When 
seeds  are  dry  they  can  withstand  considerable  cold.  The  rea- 
son for  protecting  seeds  from  pests  is  obvious. 

Quality  of  seeds  to  purchase.  —  The  farmer  when  purchasing 
seeds  should  see  that  they  are  plump  and  well  filled.  Shrunken 
seeds  seldom  produce  healthy  plants.  The  purity  of  the  seeds 
must  be  considered,  also,  by  purity  being  meant  the  presence 
or  absence  of  weed  seeds.  Small  seeds  like  clover  and  alfalfa 
often  contain  weed  seeds  and  if  planted  many  weeds  will  grow 
in  the  field.  The  difference  between  the  cost  of  good  and  of 
poor  seeds  is  very  small. 

10.  Propagation  of  field,  vegetable,  and  greenhouse  crops 
by  division.  —  Some  plants  propagate  themselves  naturally 
by  division ;  others  are  propagated  by  artificial  means.  The 
extent  to  which  propagation  by  division  is  used  will  be  learned 
from  the  succeeding  paragraphs. 

Division  of  the  crown.  —  Propagation  by  dividing  the  crown 
of  the  plant  is  practicable  with  rhubarb,  dahlia,  globe  artichoke, 
and  a  few  others.  It  consists  in  cutting  the  crown  into  two 
or  more  parts  while  the  plant  is  dormant  and  plantmg  these 
parts  to  form  new  individuals.  In  the  case  of  rhubarb,  which 
may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  a  plant  propagated  by  this 
method,  a  piece  of  root  containing  a  strong  eye,  or  bud,  will 
produce  a  good  specimen  in  one  season,  but  the  stalks  will  not 
be  ready  for  cutting  until  the  second  year.  The  roots  can  be 
cut  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  good  eyes,  but  most  grow- 
ers find  it  a  better  practice  to  allow  two  eyes  to  remain  on  each 
piece. 

Specialized  buds.  —  Some  species  are  provided  with  spe- 
cialized buds  that  can  be  planted  to  propagate  new  individuals. 
These  specialized  buds  are  known  as  bulbs,  bulblets,  corms, 
and  tubers.  A  bulb  is  a  very  short  stem  that  contains  a  ter- 
minal bud  surrounded  by  scales,  the  enlargement  of  the  onion 
plant  being  an  example.  Bulblets  are  small  bulbs  that  grow  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  certain  plants,  as  in  the  tiger  lily,  or  at 


16 


Effective  Farming 


the  apex  of  the  stem,  as  in  the  top,  or  bulb-bearing,  onion.  A 
corm  is  similar  to  a  bulb,  except  that  it  is  not  composed  of  scales. 
The  food  for  the  new  plant  is  deposited  in  the  thickened  stem. 
The  crocus  and  cyclamen,  flowering  plants,  are  propagated 
by  planting  the  corms.     A  tuber  is  an  underground  stem  that 

is  provided  with  buds,  or  eyes. 
The  white  potato  produces 
tubers  and,  by  planting  pieces 
of  these,  potatoes  are  propa- 
gated. Each  piece  should 
contain  at  least  one  eye  and 
most  gardeners  prefer  to  plant 
two.  The  portion  of  the  tuber 
planted  acts  as  food  for  the 
new  plant  until  it  is  able  to 
take  nourishment  from  the  soil. 
The  parts  of  the  white  potato 
plant  are  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Fleshy  roots.  —  Sweet  pota- 
toes are  usually  propagated  by 
placing  the  roots,  or  potatoes, 
in  soil  in  hot-beds.  By  reason 
of  the  heat  in  the  bed,  buds 
form  and  develop  into  sprouts 
and  these,  called  slips  or  draws, 
are  pulled  ofT  and  planted. 
Sweet  potatoes  also  are  some- 
times propagated  by  vine  cut- 
ting, as  described  later. 
Herbaceous  cuttings.  —  Plants  such  as  the  geranium,  coleus, 
begonia,  and  heliotrope  are  propagated  by  means  of  herbaceous 
cuttings.  A  cutting  is  a  detached  part  of  the  plant  that  will 
take  root  when  placed  in  soil,  sand,  or  water.  Later  it  can 
be  transplanted.  Herbaceous  cuttings  are  usually  made  from 
the  stem  with  a  few  leaves  attached,  but  in  the  case  of  the 


Fig.  3. 


Parts  of  the  white  potato 
plant. 


Plant  Study  17 

begonia  the  leaves  can  be  made  to  sprout.     Fig.  4  shows  a 
cutting  of  coleus. 

Sugar-cane  is  propagated  by  planting  stalks  from  which  the 
leaves  and  tops  have  been  stripped.  A  bud  is  borne  on  each 
node  of  the  stem.  When  the  stem  is  placed  in  the  soil,  these 
buds  will  develop  into  new  plants.  The  buds  are  easily  killed 
by  freezing  and  for  this  reason  that 
part  of  the  crop  to  be  saved  for  plant- 
ing is  harvested  early  and  protected 
against  frost. 

Tillers  and  rootstocks.  —  Grasses  are 
propagated  by  means  of  seeds,  but  they 
multiply  naturally  by  tillers  and  by 
rootstocks.  Timothy,  for  example,  or 
any  grain  such  as  wheat,  rye,  or  oats, 
which  are  grasses,  multiplies  by  tillers.  ^'^'  4. -Cutting  of  coleus. 
Off-shoots  called  tillers  are  produced  from  the  lower  nodes  of  a 
plant  and  these  develop  into  stalks.  Later  the  new  off-shoots 
produce  others  and  this  process  continues  until  the  plant  be- 
comes mature.  This  process  is  called  tillering. 
'  In  propagation  by  means  of  rootstocks  the  plant  sends  out 
lateral  shoots,  in  most  species  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  these  produce  at  the  nodes  a  set  of  roots  and  a 
stem  that  forms  a  new  plant.  Each  of  these  new  plants  may 
in  turn  send  out  shoots  and  produce  other  individuals.  As 
this  process  continues,  a  close  sod  is  formed.  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  and  Bermuda-grass  reproduce  in  this  way. 

11.  Propagation  of  fruit  plants  by  division.  —  Most  fruit 
plants  are  propagated  by  division  and  several  of  them  propa- 
gate naturally.  For  example,  the  red  raspberry  produces 
sprouts  or  suckers  that  make  new  plants.  The  strawberry 
sends  out  runners  along  the  surface  of  the  ground  that  take 
root,  thus  producing  new  individuals.  These  plants  may  be 
cut  off  and  transplanted.  The  black  raspberry  produces  long 
drooping  canes,  called  stolons,  that  take  root  when  the  tips 


18  Effective  Farming 

touch  the  ground.     As  soon  as  the  stolons  have  become  rooted, 
the  new  plant  is  ready  to  be  transplanted. 

The  chief  method  of  propagating  fruit  plants  is  by  division 
artificially.  The  means  employed  are :  hardwood  stem  cut- 
ting, root  cuttings,  layers,  grafts,  and  buds. 

Hardwood  stem  cuttings  are  made  from  the  ripened  wood  of 
the  previous  season's  growth.  Grapes,  currants,  gooseberries, 
and  cranberries  are  often  propagated  by  means 
of  these  stem  cuttings.  In  Fig.  5  are  shown 
cuttings  of  the  grape  and  in  Fig.  6,  cuttings 
of  the  currant.  Hardwood  stem  cuttings  must 
bear  at  least  one  bud  and,  unless  the  supply 
of  stock  is  limited,  they  are  usually  cut  with 
two  or  more  buds.  Three  kinds  of  these 
cuttings  —  simple,  heel,  and  mallet  —  are  used 
in  horticultural  practice.  A  simple  cutting 
consists  of  a  straight  part  of  the  shoot  or 
cane,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5;  it  is  usually  cut 
off  just  below  the  lower  bud,  since  roots 
develop  more  readily  than  when  more  of  the 
internode  is  left  below  the  bud.  The  roots 
develop  from  adventitious  buds.  A  heel  cut- 
ting is  made  in  such  a  way  that  a  small  part 
of  the  branch  to  which  the  stem  is  growing 
remains  attached  to  the  cutting,  as  shown  at 
the  right  in  Fig.  6  ;  this  forms  what  is  known 
as  the  heel.  Obviously  one  cutting  only  can 
Fig.  5.— Simple  cut-  be  made  from  the  branch  and  this  is  a  disad- 
tings  o  t  e  grape,  yg^^tage,  especially  if  cutting-wood  is  scarce. 
However,  a  heel  cutting  is  somewhat  easier  to  root  than  a 
simple  cutting.  A  mallet  cutting  is  similar  to  a  heel  cutting, 
except  that  the  cuts  in  the  parent  branch  both  above  and 
below  the  attachment  are  made  entirely  through  the  branch, 
as  shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  6,  thus  leaving  a  section  of  the 
parent  branch  attached  to  the  cutting.    . 


Plant  Study 


19 


Hardwood  stem  cuttings  are  made  late  in  the  fall  or  early 
in  the  winter  when  the  wood  is  dormant.  In  practice  they 
are  tied  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  to  fifty  with  the  butts  all  one 
way  and  usually  the  bundles  are  placed  butt-end  up  in  a  trench 
in  the  ground  below  frost  depth  and  covered  with  soil.  This 
way  of  handling  keeps  the  top  buds  from 
freezing  and  places  the  root  ends  where  they 
can  be  warmed  by  the  sun  heat  in  the  spring 
to  stimulate  root  growth.  Instead  of  placing 
the  bundles  in  the  ground,  some  growers  store 
them  through  the  winter  in  a  cool  cellar  in 
sand,  sawdust,  or  moss.  Whichever  method 
is  followed,  in  the  spring  the  bundles  are 
taken  up,  untied,  and  the  cuttings  planted 
about  three  inches  apart  in  the  soil.  One 
or  two  buds  are  left  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  the  soil  is  packed  firmly  about 
the  base  of  the  cutting.  If  conditions  for 
growth  are  favorable,  the  cuttings  will  start 
roots  and  stem  during  the  growing  season  and 
will  be  ready  for  transplanting  in  the  fall  or 
the  following  spring. 

Root  cuttings.  —  Pieces  of  roots,  usually 
about  the  size  of  a  lead-pencil  and  about 
three  inches  in  length,  are  sometimes  used 
for  propagating  fruit  plants.  Blackberries 
and  raspberries  are  often  propagated  in  this 
way.  The  cuttings  are  made  in  the  autumn 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  are  stored 
until  spring  in  moss  in  a  cool  cellar.  When  the  ground  has 
warmed  in  the  spring,  they  are  planted  horizontally  about  two 
inches  apart  and  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  soil. 
By  fall  or  the  next  spring,  they  should  have  developed  plants 
that  can  be  transplanted. 

Layers.  —  A  branch  or  vine  that  is  placed  in  contact  with 


Fig.  6. —  Mallet  cut^ 
ting  and  heel  cut- 
ting of  the  currant. 


20  Effective  Farming 

the  soil  and  induced  to  take  root  while  still  attached  to  the 
parent  plant  is  called  a  layer  and  the  process  of  propagating 
plants  in  this  way  is  known  as  layering.  Grapes  and  black 
raspberries  are  often  propagated  by  layering.  In  the  case  of 
the  grape,  this  may  be  accomplished  by  bending  down  in  the 
spring  a  cane  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  laying  it  in  a 
shallow  trench  in  the  ground,  partly  filling  the  trench  with  fine 
earth,  and  packing  the  earth  firmly  about  the  cane.  About 
eight  inches  or  so  of  the  end  of  the  cane  is  left  uncovered  to 
supply  foHage  to  keep  the  vine  growing.  Sprouts  will  soon 
form  on  the  layer  and  as  these  grow  the  trench  is  gradually 
filled  up.  As  soon  as  the  new  plants  are  thoroughly  rooted, 
they  are  detached  from  the  parent  plant  and  transplanted. 

Black  raspberries  are  propagated  by  what  is  called  tip  layer- 
ing. A  cane  is  bent  over  and  the  tip  covered  with  about  two 
inches  of  soil.  Roots  and  a  crown  of  buds  that  will  form  a 
new  cane  will  develop.  When  the  new  plant  is  well  rooted, 
it  is  separated  from  the  parent  plant  and  set  where  it  is  to  stand 
permanently. 

Mound  layering  is  a  method  often  employed  for  propagating 
currants,  gooseberries,  and  quinces.  In  the  case  of  currants, 
the  bush  is  cut  back  early  in  the  spring  to  stimulate  new  growth 
and  early  in  the  fall  earth  is  mounded  up  around  the  plants 
until  it  covers  the  new  wood.  This  causes  roots  to  develop 
on  these  new  canes.  Thus  a  number  of  new  individuals  are 
produced.  These  may  be  removed  from  the  parent  plant  and 
transplanted  the  next  spring. 

Grafts.  —  When  a  twig  of  one  tree  is  fastened  to  the  stem  or 
root  of  another  in  such  a  way  that  the  twig  will  continue  growth 
from  nourishment  furnished  by  the  latter,  it  forms  a  graft. 
The  twig  is  known  as  the  cion  and  the  stem  or  root  as  the 
stock.  The  cambium  layers  of  stock  and  cion  must  be  in  con- 
tact. Then  sap  will  be  carried  from  the  stock  to  the  cion. 
This  method  is  employed  extensively  for  apples,  pears,  quinces, 
apricots,  plums,  and  others.     When  propagating  apple  trees, 


Plant  Study 


21 


seeds  are  placed  in  moist  sand  in  the  fall  or  winter  to  soften 
them  and  in  the  spring  they  are  taken  up  and  planted  about 
an  inch  deep  in  rich  soil.  The  ground  is  thoroughly  cultivated 
during  the  growing  season  and  in  the  fall  after  frost  the  seed- 
lings are  dug  up  and  stored  in  green  sawdust  in  a  cool  cellar. 
Early  in  November  cions  are  cut  from  trees  of  the  variety  de- 
sired to  propagate.  These  should  be  about  six  inches  long  and 
of  the  previous  season's  growth.  The  cions  are  packed  in  saw- 
dust in  the  cellar  and  whip-grafted  on  pieces  of  seedling  root 
in  January  or  February.  In  the  most  usual 
method  followed,  the  roots  of  the  seedlings 
are  cut  into  pieces  three  or  four  inches 
long  and  each  piece  used  as  a  stock.  When 
making  the  union  of  stock  and  cion,  a  slant- 
ing cut  is  made  on  the  upper  end  of  a 
piece  of  root  and  a  similar  cut  on  the  base 
of  a  cion.  Both  the  root  and  the  cion  are 
split  about  an  inch  down,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
7,  a  and  h,  and  the  two  are  fitted  together, 
as  shown  in  c.  The  two  must  fit  snugly 
and  the  cambium  layers  must  be  in  contact, 
on  one  side  at  least.  The  graft  is  then 
wrapped  with  waxed  cotton  (see  page  28)  to  hold  the  two 
parts  firmly  together.  The  finished  grafts  are  packed  in  saw- 
dust in  the  cellar  until  spring  and,  as  soon  as  the  soil  has  warmed 
up,  they  are  planted  in  the  nursery  or  garden.  One  bud  only 
is  left  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  ground  is  culti- 
vated during  the  summer  and  by  fall  the  grafts  should  be  large 
enough  to  be  set  in  the  soil  where  they  are  to  stand  permanently. 
However,  if  not  needed  for  immediate  planting,  they  may  be 
grown  in  the  nursery  for  another  year.  A  better  practice  is  to 
use  whole  roots  rather  than  pieces  of  roots  for  stocks. 

Grafting  is  often  employed  for  top-working  apple  trees  when 
it  is  desired  to  change  the  variety  or  have  more  than  one  variety 
on  a  tree.     The  cions  are  set  into  the  branches  of  the  tree. 


Fig.  7. 


Whip-graft- 
ing, a,  the  stock ; 
b,  the  cion;  c,  stock 
and  cion  united. 


22 


Effective  Farming 


The  usual  way  of  top- working  is  to  cleft-graft,  which  method 
is  herewith  described.  In  late  fall  or  early  winter  cions  of  the 
previous  season's  growth,  bearing  two  or  three  buds,  are 
cut  from  trees  known  to  be  producers  of  good  fruit  of  the  variety 
desired  and  are  stored  in  sand  or  sawdust  in  a  cool  cellar  where 
they  will  remain  dormant.  The  grafting  is  done  in  the  spring 
before  growth  starts.  A  branch  to  be  grafted  (usually  one 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter)  is  sawed  straight  across, 

care  being  taken  not  to  loosen 
the  bark.  The  stub  is  split  with 
a  grafting  tool,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
8,  a,  or  with  a  chisel  and  a  cion 
cut  to  a  wedge  shape  with  one 
edge  thicker  than  the  other  is  set 
into  the  stock,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8, 
h,  with  the  thickest  edge  toward 
the  outside.  This  method  of 
cutting  and  fitting  the  cion  holds 
it  firmly  in  place.  In  order  to  be 
sure  that  the  growing  tissues  are 
in  contact,  it  is  well  to  set  the 
cion  at  a  slight  angle ;  the  cam- 
biums of  the  cion  and  the  stock 
must  then  cross  at  some  point. 
Two  cions  are  inserted  in  each 
cleft,  as  shown  in  c.  After  they  are  in  place,  the  grafting  tool  is 
removed  and  all  the  cut  surfaces  are  covered  with  soft  grafting 
wax  which,  when  it  cools,  hardens  and  forms  a  covering  over 
the  wood.  (See  page  28.)  Later  in  the  season,  if  both  cions  are 
found  to  be  growing,  the  one  showing  less  vigor  is  removed. 
Only  a  part  of  a  tree  should  be  top-worked  because  if  too  many 
branches  are  removed  not  enough  foliage  is  left  to  nourish  the 
tree.  The  remaining  branches  are  removed  the  next  year  or  two. 
Buds.  —  Budding  is  similar  to  grafting  except  that  a  live 
btid  instead  of  a  cion  is  placed  in  contact  with  the  cambium 


Fig.  8.  —  Clef  Ingrafting,  a,  splitting 
the  stock ;  b,  cion ;  e,  cions  in- 
serted in  the  cleft. 


Plant  Study  23 

layer  of  the  stock.  Peaches,  cherries,  oranges,  and  several 
other  fruits  are  propagated  by  budding.  The  method  of  grow- 
ing and  budding  peach  seedlings  as  given  in  the  following  para- 
graphs will  serve  to  explain  the  process. 

At  the  close  of  the  ripening  season  peach  pits  are  secured 
and  either  stratified  or  planted  at  once.  Seedling  pits  are 
preferable,  as  trees  grown  from  them  are  more  hardy  than  those 
from  the  pits  of  cultivated  varieties.  However,  the  latter 
are  often  used.  In  stratifying  pits,  a  well  drained  spot  in  the 
garden  or  nursery  is  chosen,  the  soil  removed  to  a  depth  of 
five  or  six  inches,  and  a  layer  of  pits  about  an  inch  or  so  thick 
spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  bed.  The  layer  of  pits  is  then 
covered  with  a  layer  of  soil  about  an  inch  or  so  thick  and  a  second 
layer  of  pits  is  spread  above  this  and  covered  with  soil.  If 
conditions  are  favorable  during  the  winter,  the  pits  will  keep 
moist  and  the  frost  will  break  the  shells  at  the  suture.  In  the 
spring  the  pits  are  dug  up  and  the  kernels  separated  from  the 
shells.  Any  pits  that  have  not  opened  are  cracked  and  the 
pits  removed.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work, 
the  kernels  are  planted  in  rich  well  drained  soil  in  rows  four 
feet  apart  with  the  pits  spaced  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  the 
row  and  they  are  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  soil.  Dur- 
ing the  growing  season  the  young  plants  are  cultivated  fre- 
quently and  some  time  in  the  summer  they  are  thinned  to  stand 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  By  August  they  are  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  are  then  ready  for 
budding. 

If  the  pits  are  not  to  be  stratified,  they  are  planted  during 
the  fall  in  the  nursery  or  garden  where  they  will  grow,  but  they 
are  dropped  about  an  inch  apart.  The  frost  will  open  some  of 
them,  but  not  all,  and  the  thicker  planting  is  made  to  insure 
a  good  stand.  In  the  spring  the  plants  that  grow  are  thinned 
to  stand  about  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  a  row  and  in  the 
summer  they  are  thinned  to  stand  about  six  inches  apart. 

Preparatory  to  budding  the  seedlings,  bud-sticks  are  cut  from 


24 


Effective  Farming 


Fig.  10.  —  Cutting  the  bud. 


trees  of  the  variety  desired  to  propagate.  Bud-sticks 
are  from  twigs  of  the  current  season's  growth.  The 
leaves  are  removed,  but  the  petioles  are  left  attached 
to  the  twig,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  to  act  as  handles  to 
the  buds  to  aid  in  inserting  them  underneath  the 
bark  of  the  stock. 
In  cutting  a  bud,  the 
bud-stick  is  held  in 
one  hand  with  the 
proximal  end  —  the 
one  that  was  nearest 
the  limb  from  which 
the  twig  was  cut  — 
away  from  the  body 
and  a  bud  is  cut  by 

starting   about   half  an  inch  above  the  bud  and 

finishing  about  half  an  inch  below.     At  the  lower 

end  of  the  cut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  the  bark  is 

Pig. 9.— Bud-  left  attached  until  the  bud  is  needed.      All  the 

®^^  ■         buds  are  cut  before  starting  to  insert  underneath 

the  bark  of  the  stocks.      The  cuts  in  the  stocks  are   made 

about  three  inches  above  the  ground.     A  cross  incision  and 

a  longitudinal  in- 
cision are  made 
through  the  bark  of 
the  stock,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  11,  a,  and  the 
bark  turned  back  by 
means  of  the  knife, 
as  shown  in  b.  A 
bud  is  removed  from 
T3v^   1 1      -D        •      xu     X    1       J  •      X.      xt,     the  bud-stick  by  cut- 

FiG.  11.  —  Prepanng   the  stock  and  inserting  the  .           ^                    -^ 

bud.     a,  incision  made  in  the  bark;  b,  the  bark  ting     it     off     at     the 
turned   back;    c,  the  bud  inserted ;    d.  the  bud  lower  end  and  insert- 
wrapped  to  the  stock;    e,  the  seedling   tree  re- 
moved above  the  bud.  ing  it  underneath  the 


^m^mt 


Plant  Study 


25 


bark  of  the  stock,  as  shown  in  c.  The  cambium  layers  of  stock 
and  bud  must  be  in  contact.  The  bud  is  then  wrapped  to  the 
stalk  by  naeans  of  raffia  or  waxed-string,  as  shown  in  d.  To 
hold  the  raffia  in  place,  the  ends  are  pushed  underneath  the 
wraps.  Waxed-string  will  stick  without  tying.  In  about  three 
weeks,  if  the  bud  has  set,  the  raffia  or  the  string  must  be  cut 
or  it  may  girdle  the  tree.  If  sprouts  form  on  the  stock,  they 
should  be  rubbed  off,  as  they  use  the 
plant-food  that  is  needed  to  develop  the 
new  bud.  The  following  spring  after 
growth  starts,  the  seedling  tree  above  the 
bud  is  cut  off,  as  shown  in  e.  Frequent 
cultivation  of  the  soil  during  the  spring 
and  summer  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
young  tree  growing.  In  the  fall  or  the 
next  spring,  the  budded  trees  are  ready  to 
be  transplanted  to  the  place  they  are  to 
occupy  in  the  orchard.  Fig.  12  shows  a 
budded  tree  that  is  ready  for  transplant- 
ing.    Locate  the  bud  union. 

The  branches  of  mature  peach  trees 
can  be  budded  in  the  same  way  as  out- 
lined for  seedlings.  This  is  often  done 
when  it  is  desired  to  change  the  variety. 
In  this  case,  the  limbs  are  cut  to  stubs 
so  that   new  shoots  will  arise  into  which  the  buds  are  set. 

Apples  are  extensively  propagated  by  budding  in  the  nursery 
row.  The  salable  tree  is  two  or  three  years  old  from  the 
buds.     Pears,  plums,  and  other  trees  are  similarly  propagated. 

List  of  commercial  methods  in  fruit  propagation.  —  A  list  is 
given  below  as  a  convenient  guide  to  the  commercial  methods 
used  in  propagating  fruit  plants.  It  will  be  seen  that  some 
plants  can  be  propagated  in  several  ways.  All  of  the  methods 
listed  for  each  plant  are  employed  commercially. 

Apple  —  grafts  or  buds  on  seedling  apple  roots. 


i 

\ 

■''  /I 

if 

r/. 

Fig. 


12.  —  A    budded 
nursery  tree. 


26  Effective  Farming 

Pear  (standard)  —  buds  or  grafts  on  seedling  pear  roots. 

Pear  (dwarf)  —  buds  or  grafts  on  quince  roots. 

Quince  —  buds  on  Angers  quince,  grafts  on  apple  roots, 
mound  layers,  hardwood  cuttings. 

Peach  —  buds  on  peach  seedlings. 

Cherry  —  buds  on  cherry  seedlings. 

Plums  —  grafts  or  buds  on  peach,  apricot,  almond,  or  plum 
seedlings. 

Grapes  —  hardwood  cuttings,  layers,  grafts  on  grape 
seedlings. 

Fig  —  hardwood  cuttings. 

Citrus  fruits  —  buds  on  citrus  seedUngs. 

Strawberry  —  runners. 

Red  raspberry  —  suckers,  root  cuttings. 

Black  raspberry  —  tip  layers. 

Blackberry  —  suckers,  root  cuttings. 

Dewberry  —  tip  layers. 

Currant  —  hardwood  cuttings,  mound  layers. 

Gooseberry  —  hardwood  cuttings,  mound  layers. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  functions  of  water  in  plants? 

2.  What  are  carbohydrates  ? 

3.  The  term  protein  is  used  to  designate  what  kinds  of  organic 
compounds  ? 

4.  In  what  three  ways  are  plants  propagated? 

5.  Define  spore  and  tell  how  spores  differ  from  seeds. 

6.  What  is  the  embryo  of  a  seed? 

7.  State  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  germination  of  seeds. 

8.  How  is  rhubarb  propagated  ? 

9.  Tell  how  to  secure  sweet  potato  slips. 

10.  What  is  a  cutting?     How  are  cuttings  made? 

11.  Give  examples  of  plants  that  propagate  naturally  by  division. 

12.  What  time  of  the  year  are  hardwood  stem  cuttings  made  ? 

13.  Tell  how  blackberries  are  propagated  by  root  cuttings. 

14.  Describe  the  method  of  layering  grape  vines. 

15.  Define  graft,  cion,  stock,  bud,  bud-stick. 

16.  How  does  budding  differ  from  grafting? 


Plant  Study 


27 


EXERCISES 

1.  Water  in  plants.  —  Cut  a  white  potato  into  pieces  and  observe 
the  water  on  the  cut  surface.  How  did  the  water  get  into  the  plant? 
Place  a  small  quantity  of  chopped  hay  in  a  test  tube  and  heat  slowly. 
Why  does  moisture  gather  around  the  top  of  the  tube  ?  Try  the  same 
experiment  with  flour  and  starch.  Where 
does  the  moisture  come  from? 

2.  The  seeds  of  plants.  —  Soak  a 
few  beans  in  water  for  about  an  hour. 
Remove  the  seed-coat  and  find  the  germ 
and  the  cotyledons.  Make  a  seed-tester 
by  placing  pieces  of  moist  cloth  between 
two  dinner  plates,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 
Place  bean  and  corn  seeds  in  the  tester. 
Keep  the  cloth  moist  and  the  tester  in 
a  warm  place  for  three  or  four  days. 
Examine  the  seeds  after  they  are  sprouted  and  locate  the  radicle, 
the  plumule,  and  the  cotyledons  or  cotyledon.  After  the  roots  of 
the  corn  have  become  several  inches  long,  examine  them  carefully  and 
compare  with  Fig.  14. 

3.  Conditions  necessary  for  germination.  —  Arrange  four  seed- 
testers  like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  13  and  place  seeds  in  them.  Label 
them  1,  2,  3,  and  4.     Keep  tester  No.  1  moist  and  put  it  in  a  warm  place. 

The    seeds    are   warm, 


Fig. 


13.  —  A    practical    seed- 
tester  for  small  seeds. 


ffooT  5prout~^ 

Stem  Sprout -^^ 
Redinc  Hoots^ 


are 
moist,  and  supplied 
with  oxygen  (air  is  pres- 
ent between  the  pieces 
of  cloth)  and  if  they  are 
alive  they  will  sprout. 
Do  not  moisten  the 
cloth  in  tester  No.  2, 
but  put  it  in  a  warm 
place.  The  seeds  are 
warm  and  supplied  with 
oxygen,  but  they  are 
not  moist  and  will  not 
sprout.  Keep  tester  No.  3  moist  and  place  it  in  an  ice-box.  It, 
is  supplied  with  moisture  and  oxygen,  but  not  warmth ;  the  seeds 
will  not  sprout.  Keep  the  seeds  in  tester  No.  4  covered  with  water, 
and  place  the  tester  in  a  warm  place.  By  keeping  the  seeds  covered 
with  water  you  have  practically  cut  off  the  oxygen  supply  and,  as  a 
result,  the  seeds  will  not  sprout. 


Fig.  14.  —  Parts  of  a  sprouted  maize  kernel. 


28  Effective  Farming 

Place  soil  in  a  tin  can  or  glass  tumbler ;  plant  seeds  in  the  soil  and 
keep  the  soil  saturated  with  water.  At  the  same  time,  plant  seeds  in 
soil  in  a  flower  pot  or  other  receptacle  that  is  provided  with  drainage 
and  keep  the  soil  moist,  but  not  too  wet.  Explain  the  difference  in 
results  of  the  two  plantings. 

4.  Grafting-wax,  waxed-string,  and  waxed-tape.  —  Grafting-wax 
is  used  to  cover  the  cut  surfaces  in  cleft-grafting ;  it  forms  a  protective 
covering  impervious  to  moisture.  Waxed-string  and  waxed-tape  are 
used  for  tying  buds  to  the  stock  in  budding  and  also  for  holding  the 
stock  and  cion  together  in  whip-grafting. 

The  following  equipment  is  required  to  carry  out  this  exercise. 
Two  pounds  of  resin,  one  pound  of  beeswax,  half  a  pound  of  tallow  or 
half  a  pint  of  linseed  oil,  small  quantity  of  tallow  for  greasing  the  hands 
and  coating  the  paper  in  which  the  wax  is  to  be  stored,  vessel  in  which 
to  cook  the  ingredients,  ball  of  No.  18  cotton  yarn,  and  a  piece  of 
muslin. 

To  make  the  wax,  break  the  resin  and  beeswax  into  small  pieces  and 
place  them  with  the  tallow  or  linseed  oil  in  the  pan  and  over  the  heat. 
When  melted  pour  the  contents  of  the  pan  into  cold  water  and  when 
cool  enough  pull  as  you  would  taffy  until  the  wax  becomes  light-* 
colored  and  smooth-grained.  Rub  a  little  tallow  on  your  hands  to 
prevent  the  wax  from  sticking  to  the  skin.  Coat  some  paper  with  tal- 
low and  wrap  the  wax  in  this  paper  and  store  in  a  cool  place  for  future 
use. 

To  make  waxed-string,  drop  the  ball  of  No.  18  cotton  yarn  into 
melted  grafting-wax  and  leave  it  there  for  about  five  minutes.  Re- 
move and  allow  it  to  cool.     Store  for  future  use. 

Waxed-tape  is  made  of  cloth  coated  with  wax  and  torn  into  strips 
about  one-third  inch  in  width.  It  is  used  more  largely  in  citrus-tree 
budding  than  in  the  propagation  of  other  kinds  of  trees.  To  make 
waxed-tape,  dip  a  piece  of  muslin  of  convenient  size  into  hot  grafting- 
wax,  take  it  out  immediately,  and  scrape  off  the  surplus  wax  before 
it  cools.  A  convenient  way  to  do  this  is  to  throw  the  piece  of  muslin 
over  a  stick  held  horizontally  by  one  of  the  pupils,  then  scrape  off  the 
wax  by  pulling  downward  with  two  pieces  of  wood  pressed  against 
each  other,  one  on  each  side  of  the  folded  strip.  After  the  surplus 
wax  has  been  removed,  lay  the  muslin  out  to  cool  and,  when  cool,  tear 
into  strips  about  a  third  of  an  inch  wide.  Wind  these  strips  into  a 
ball  and  as  each  strip  is  added  slip  the  end  of  it  about  a  half  inch  under 
the  one  previously  added.  The  ends  will  stick  together  and  the  tape 
will  be  in  a  continuous  strip,  which  arrangement  is  convenient  when 
budding  the  seedlings. 


Plant  Study  29 

5.  Propagation  by  division.  —  In  the  winter  secure  a  rhubarb  root, 
cut  it  into  pieces  allowing  two  eyes  to  a  piece,  and  plant  the  pieces  in  a 
window-box  in  the  schoolroom.  Watch  the  growth  of  these  pieces  of 
roots.  Where  does  the  plant-food  that  nourishes  the  plants  come 
from? 

Wrap  an  Irish  potato  in  moist  cotton  or  sphagnum  moss.  Keep  in 
a  warm  place  in  the  schoolroom  and  watch  results. 

Make  cuttings  of  geranium,  coleus,  begonia,  and  heliotrope  and 
plant  them  in  coarse  sand  that  is  kept  moist  and  warm.  When  rooted 
notice  the  place  on  the  stem  where  the  roots  start.  From  what  kind 
of  buds  do  they  start? 

On  a  field  trip  observe  suckers  of  red  raspberries,  stolons  of  black 
raspberries,  and  runners  of  strawberries.  Secure  rooted  cuttings  of 
these  plants  and  plant  them  in  the  school  garden. 

Following  directions  previously  given,  propagate  grapes  and  currants 
by  simple  cuttings,  blackberries  and  raspberries  by  root  cuttings,  grapes 
by  layers,  black  raspberries  by  tip  layers,  apples  by  planting  seeds  and 
grafting  the  seedlings,  and  peaches  by  planting  pits  and  budding  the 
seedlings.  Also,  top-work  a  few  branches  of  an  apple  tree  by  means 
of  cleft-grafts  and  a  peach  tree  by  buds. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture.  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Snyder,  Harry,  Soils  and  Fertilizer.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Coulter,  J.  G.,  Plant  Life  and  Plant  Uses.    American  Book  Co. 

Needham,  J.  G.,  The  Natural  History  of  the  Farm.  Comstock  Publish- 
ing Co. 

Comstock,  Anna  B.,  The  Handbook  of  Nature  Study.  Comstock  Pub- 
lishing Co. 

Soule,  A.  M.,  and  Turpin,  E.  H.  L.,  Agriculture.  B.  F.  Johnson  Pub- 
lishing Co. 

Kyle,  E.  J.,  and  Ellis,  A.  C,  Fundamentals  of  Farming  and  Farm  Life. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Mayne  and  Hatch,  High  School  Agriculture.    American  Book  Co. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  157,  Propagation  of  Plants. 


CHAPTER  III 

SOILS 

Constituents  of  soil. 

Formation  of  soil. 

Classification  of  soil  according  to  mode  of  formation. 

Residual,    cumulose,    coUuvial,    alluvial,    marine,    lacustrine, 
glacial,  seolian. 
Classification  of  soil  according  to  texture. 

Clay,  silty,  sandy,  gravelly,  stony,  loam. 
Classification  of  soil  according  to  rainfall. 

Humid,  arid,  semi-arid,  semi-humid. 
Heavy  and  light  soils. 
Structure  of  soil. 

Separate-grained,  puddled,  granular. 

Conditions  affecting  soil  structure. 
Functions  of  water  in  soil. 
Forms  of  water  in  soil. 

Hygroscopic,  capillary,  gravitational. 
Control  of  soil-water  by  cropping  methods. 

Reducing  run-off  losses. 

Reducing  percolation  losses. 

Reducing  evaporation  losses. 

Improving  soil  structure  to  increase  soil-water. 
Irrigation, 

Overhead  irrigation. 

Sub-irrigation. 

Flooding. 

Furrow  irrigation. 
Soil  drainage. 

Open-ditch  drainage. 

Underdrainage. 
Air  in  soil. 
Bacteria  in  soil. 

No  people  can  be  permanently  prosperous  and  progressive 
unless  it  thoughtfully  cares  for  its  soil.  It  is  out  of  the  soil 
that  the  agricultural  products  come,  for  even  the  fish  that  the 

30 


Soils  31 

farmer  raises  in  ponds  and  streams  could  not  persist  were  it 
not  for  the  yield  of  the  land.  When  the  barns  are  bursting 
with  great  yields,  the  land  is  to  be  praised.  We  are  not  to 
think  of  soil  as  mere  dirt,  beneath  our  notice.  The  farmer 
buys  his  land  and  cares  for  it ;  the  more  knowledge  he  has  of 
it  the  better  should  be  his  practice.  The  proper  care  of  the 
soil  is  perhaps  his  first  duty.  He  must  understand  tillage  and 
the  reasons  for  it.  The  robbing  of  the  land  of  its  fertility  is 
not  only  poor  farming  for  the  present,  but  it  destroys  the  her- 
itage of  the  future,  impoverishing  those  who  come  after  us. 
A  farmer  should  not  leave  worn-out  land  to  his  children ;  and 
the  children  are  to  learn  how  to  care  for  it,  to  be  ready  when 
it  comes  their  time  to  have  control. 

12.  Constituents  of  soil.  —  From  the  farmer's  standpoint, 
that  part  of  the  earth's  crust  in  which  roots  can  or  do  find  a 
place  to  grow  is  soil.  It  is  composed  of  broken-up  rock  particles 
mixed  with  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  The  rock  particles 
are  known  as  mineral  matter;  the  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, as  organic  matter.  The  particles  are  of  various  sizes 
and  shapes  and  of  different  stages  of  decomposition ;  some  are 
hard  and  resistant  to  decay ;'  some  are  so  decayed  that  they  are 
easily  broken.  When  the  organic  matter  of  soil  decays  until 
it  loses  all  trace  of  its  original  structure,  it  forms  what  is  called 
humus.  We  shall  read  much  about  humus  in  the  following 
pages,  for  soils  without  sufficient  humus  are  practically  worth- 
less. Humus  enriches  the  soil,  makes  it  darker  in  color,  helps 
to  make  it  crumbly  and  easy  to  cultivate,  aids  in  holding  water 
for  the  use  of  the  plants,  and  improves  the  soil  structure. 

In  addition  to  mineral  matter  and  organic  matter,  water, 
air,  bacteria,  and  plant-food  are  essential  constituents  of  pro- 
ductive soil.     These  are  discussed  in  detail  later. 

The  term  surface  soil  is  applied  to  the  top  layer  of  soil  and 
subsoil  to  that  layer  just  beneath  it.  The  top  soil  contains 
more  humus  than  the  subsoil,  is  darker  in  color,  more  porous, 
and  can  be  worked  into  garden  condition  more  easily.     The 


32  Effective  Farming 

subsoil  usually  contains  a  relatively  small  percentage  of  humus  ; 
consequently  it  is  somewhat  light  in  color. 

13.  Formation  of  soil.  —  Geology  teaches  that  the  earth 
was  once  a  molten  mass,  that  it  gradually  cooled  and  formed 
solid  rock.  From  this  solid  rock  the  soil  has  been  formed  by 
various  weathering  agents  that  have  been  at  work  for  ages. 
The  time  element  is  a  very  important  factor  and  should  be  kept 
in  mind  constantly  when  considering  soil  formation.  The  chief 
weathering  agents  responsible  for  rock  decay  are  the  atmos- 
phere, heat  and  cold,  intermittent  freezing  and  thawing,  gla- 
ciers, water,  and  vegetation. 

14.  Classification  of  soil  according  to  mode  of  formation.  — 
The  materials  of  which  a  soil  has  been  formed  are  either  seden- 
tary or  transported.  Sedentary  materials  have  not  been  shifted 
far  from  the  place  of  origin.  Most  transported  materials  have 
been  moved  a  considerable  distance  by  such  agencies  as  gravity, 
water,  wind,  and  glaciers.  Consequently  according  to  theu' 
mode  of  formation,  soils  are  either  sedentary  or  transported. 
Each  of  these  groups  is  divided  as  follows  : 

Sedentary  Soils:  Transported  Soils: 

Residual  CoUuvial 

Cumulose  Alluvial 

Marine 
Lacustrine 
Glacial 
iEolian 

Residual  soils.  —  Those  soils  that  were  formed  in  their  pres- 
ent locaUty  from  the  disintegration  of  rocks  are  residual.  The 
rocks  found  underneath  them  are  like  those  from  which  the 
soil  has  been  made.  These  are  the  oldest  agricultural  soils  in 
the  United  States.  They  are  found  in  the  eastern  and  central 
parts  and  include  the  Piedmont  Plateau,  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains, the  Limestone  Valleys,  and  the  Great  Plains  regions. 

Cumulose  soils.  —  Peat  bogs  and  muck  soil  areas  are  cumu- 


Soils  33 

lose.  They  are  found  in  areas  varying  from  a  fraction  of  an 
acre  to  thousands  of  acres.  Any  basin  that  contains  standing 
water  throughout  the  year  is  a  favorable  place  for  the  formation 
of  cumulose  soil.  The  vegetation  grows,  dies,  and  is  covered 
by  the  water.  The  water,  shutting  out  the  air,  prevents  rapid 
oxidation  and,  as  a  result,  the  organic  matter  is  largely  pre- 
served and  collects  from  year  to  year.  The  soil  that  eventually 
forms  is  very  high  in  organic  matter.  Muck  soil  is  in  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  decomposition  than  peat.  When  drained, 
areas  of  muck  soil  often  are  of  immense  value  for  certain  crops, 
especially  celery,  onions,  and  lettuce. 

Colhwial  soils.  —  Fragments  of  rocks  and  soil  that  are  car- 
ried to  the  base  of  cliffs  by  the  force  of  gravity  make  up  the 
colluvial  soils.  Their  area  is  small  and  the  soil  is  usually 
shallow  and  unproductive.  They  are  found  only  in  mountain- 
ous or  very  hilly  regions  and  as  farm  soils  are  not  important. 

Alluvial  soils.  —  Along  nearly  every  stream  water-deposited 
soil  can  be  found.  This  is  alluvial.  The  power  of  a  stream 
to  carry  sediment  varies  with  the  rate  of  flow,  the  more  rapid 
the  flow,  the  larger  the  particles  that  can  be  carried.  If  the 
flow  of  the  stream  that  is  carrying  sediment  is  checked,  some 
of  the  sediment  is  deposited.  When  the  river-beds  are  rela- 
tively steep,  deposits  are  usually  narrow  ribbons  of  coarse  sand 
or  gravel.  When  the  bed  becomes  less  steep,  the  deposits  are 
wider  and  of  finer  material.  Much  humus  is  washed  into 
alluvial  deposits  and  soils  of  this  type  are  usually  rich,  of  good 
depth,  and  valuable  for  farming. 

Marine  soils.  —  Along  the  seashore,  deposits  of  varying 
thickness  are  made.  When  such  deposits  are  elevated  above 
the  sea,  a  condition  that  is  often  found,  they  are  given  the 
name,  marine  soils.  Most  of  these  are  sandy  and  are  largely 
used  for  vegetable-growing.  Marine  soils  in  the  United  States 
extend  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plains. 

Lacustrine  soils.  —  Sediment  which  has  been  deposited  in 
lakes  may  later,  by  the  drying  up  of  the  lake,  become  soil. 


84  Effective  Farming 

Such  lake-formed  soils  are  known  as  lacustrine  and  are  of  two 
kinds,  -those  made  by  recent  lakes  and  those  by  glacial  lakes. 
Large  deposits  of  glacial  lake-formed  soils  are  found  in  the 
United  States.  The  fertile  Red  River  lands  in  Minnesota  are 
largely  of  this  soil.  The  recent  lake  deposits  are  formed  when 
the  lakes  are  filled  by  river  sediment.  The  area  of  such  soils 
in  the  United  States  is  small.  Lake-formed  soil  is  usually 
rich  in  humus,  fine,  and  of  good  tilth. 

Glacial  soils.  —  The  soils  that  were  formed  by  the  glaciers 
that  covered  the  continent  in  prehistoric  times  are  usually  rich, 
fertile,  of  good  tilth,  and  produce  good  crops.  They  extend 
over  several  of  the  best  farming  states,  including  parts  or  all 
of  Montana,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania 
New  York,  and  the  New  England  States.  Much  of  the  corn- 
belt  is  glacial  soil. 

^olian  soils.  —  Those  soils  that  have  been  deposited  by  the 
action  of  the  wind  are  called  seolian.  The  principal  agricultural 
soil  of  this  kind  is  loess,  which  is  generally  thought  to  be  wind- 
blown material  from  accumulation  of  sediment  carried  and 
deposited  by  rivers  in  front  of  the  prehistoric  glaciers.  Loess 
is  found  in  great  abundance  in  certain  areas  of  the  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  and  Ohio  valleys.  It  is  very  rich  and  in  the  Central 
States  is  especially  valuable  for  corn-growing. 

Sand  dunes  are  wind-blown  hills  that  are  not  valuable  for 
farming  purposes.  They  are  coarse-grained,  contain  little 
organic  matter  and  are  constantly  shifting  from  place  to  place. 

15.  Classification  of  soil  according  to  texture.  —  By  tex- 
ture is  meant  the  size  of  the  soil  particles.  These  vary  from 
those  that  are  invisible  without  the  microscope  to  large  rock 
fragments.  Even  a  fine-grained  garden  soil  is  made  up  of 
several  sizes  of  particles,  which  may  be  proved  by  stirring 
a  small  quantity  in  a  tumbler  of  water  and  allowing  it  to  settle. 
The  coarser  particles  will  settle  at  the  bottom ;  and  the  finer 
above  them ;  the  very  finest  may  not  settle  for  several  hours. 


Soils  35 

Often  there  is  a  distinct  banding  of  the  layers  of  the  different- 
sized  particles. 

The  particles  of  soil  are  designated  according  to  size  as  clay, 
silt,  sand,  gravel,  and  stones.  Scientists,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  mechanical  analyses  of  soils,  have  given  arbitrary  sizes 
to  the  various  groups  of  soil  materials  and  have  found  ways  of 
determining  the  proportion  of  each  of  the  different  groups  in  soil 
samples.  The  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  uses  the  following  sizes : 

Clay  —  below  .005  millimeter 

Silt  —  .05  to  .005  millimeter 

Very  fine  sand  —  .10  to  .05  millimeter 

Fine  sand  —  .25  to  .10  millimeter 

Medium  sand  — ^  .5  to  .25  millimeter 

Coarse  sand  — ^  1  to  .5  millimeter 

Very  coarse  sand  —  2  to  1  millimeter 

In  classifying  soil  according  to  texture,  the  same  general 
terms  are  used  as  in  designating  the  size  of  particles.  Thus 
soil  composed  of  a  large  proportion  of  clay  is  known  as  a  clay 
soil,  one  made  up  largely  of  silt  is  a  silty  soil,  one  that  is  mostly 
sand  is  a  sandy  soil.  Gravelly  soil  and  stony  soil  are  those  with 
a  predominance  of  these  materials.  The  term  loam  is  used 
also  in  describing  soil  texture.  A  loam  soil  is  one  in  which  fine 
and  coarse  particles  are  about  equally  distributed.  If  one 
size  of  particle  predominates,  for  example  fine  sand,  this  name  is 
prefixed. 

The  texture  of  the  soil  cannot  be  modified  by  the  farmer  to 
any  marked  extent.  Of  course  by  mixing  particles  of  different 
sizes  together  he  can  make  a  soil  of  different  texture,  but  this 
is  not  practicable.  The  farmer,  however,  should  study  soil 
texture  in  order  to  determine  the  best  utilization  that  can  be 
made  of  each  kind  of  soil.  For  example,  it  has  been  found  that 
fine  sandy  loams  are  good  trucking  soils  and  that  rich  loam 
soils  are  usually  well  adapted  to  corn. 


36  Effective  Farming 

16.  Classification  of  soil  according  to  rainfall.  —  The  terms 
humid,  arid,  semi-arid,  and  semi-humid  are  employed  to  indi- 
cate the  relative  quantities  of  rainfall  in  localities,  and  these 
same  terms  are  applied  to  the  soils.  A  humid  soil  is  one  that 
receives  on  an  average  thirty  inches  or  more  of  rainfall  in  a 
year ;  an  arid  soil  is  one  that  receives  less  than  ten  inches ;  a 
semi-arid  soil  is  one  that  receives  from  ten  to  twenty  inches; 
and  a  semi-humid  soil  is  one  that  receives  from  twenty  to  thirty 
inches.  The  amount  of  rainfall  naturally  influences  the  crop 
production  of  a  region,  but  as  some  soils  do  not  have  the  prop- 
erty of  retaining  much  water,  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  rain- 
fall be  distributed  over  the  growing  season,  if  crops  are  to 
prosper. 

17.  Heavy  and  light  soils.  —  The  terms  heavy  and  light, 
when  applied  to  soils,  refer  to  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be 
tilled,  not  to  their  weight.  A  soil  that  is  hard  to  work  and  is 
sticky  when  wet  is  known  as  a  heavy  soil ;  one  that  is  easy  to 
work  and  not  sticky  when  wet  is  a  light  soil.  Clays,  clay  loams, 
and  muck  soils  are  heavy ;  sands,  sandy  loams,  and  loams  are 
light  soils. 

18.  Structure  of  soil.  —  The  term  structure  refers  to  the 
arrangement  of  soil  particles,  that  is,  the  way  they  fit  together. 
It  is  influenced  not  only  by  the  texture,  but  also  by  the  tillage 
the  soil  receives,  by  the  quantity  of  moisture  and  humus  in 
the  soil,  by  the  use  of  lime,  and  by  the  freezing  of  water  in  the 
soil.  Three  kinds  of  soil  structure  —  separate-grained,  puddled, 
and  granular  —  are  recognized. 

Separate-grained  structure.  —  In  a  soil  having  a  separate- 
grained  structure,  each  particle  exists  free  and  does  not  cling  to 
adjacent  particles  ;  this  condition  is  found  in  coarse,  sandy  soil. 

Puddled  structure.  —  A  puddled  condition  exists  when  a  heavy 
soil  becomes  so  packed  when  wet  that  the  fine  particles  nearly 
fill  the  pore  spaces  between  the  coarse  particles.  The  work- 
ing of  a  heavy  soil  or  the  tramping  of  it  by  live-stock  when  it  is 
wet  causes  it  to  become  puddled.     A  puddled  soil  after  it  dries 


Soils  '  37 

remains  in  hard  clods  that  are  difficult  to  reduce  in  size.  The 
tilth  of  a  heavy  soil  is  often  spoiled  for  a  whole  season  or  even 
longer  by  working  it  when  it  is  too  wet. 

Granular  structure.  —  In  a  soil  having  a  granular  structure, 
the  particles  are  cemented  together  in  small  grains.  A  fine- 
grained soil  with  this  kind  of  structure  is  easily  brought  into 
good  tilth.     A  loam  soil  is  usually  of  a  granular  structure. 

Conditions  affecting  soil  structure.  —  The  operations  of  till- 
age have  much  to  do  with  the  structure  of  soil.  The  use  of 
tillage  implements  tends  to  pulverize  soil  and  to  reduce  it  to  a 
granular  condition,  provided  the  work  is  done  when  the  soil 
contains  the  proper  proportion  of  moisture.  Notice  the  pul- 
verized condition  of  the  soil  shown  in  Fig.  15.  As  stated  pre- 
viously, if  a  soil  of  fine  texture  is  tilled  when  it  is  too  wet,  a 
puddled  structure  results.  Also,  a  heavy  soil,  if  plowed  when 
it  is  too  dry,  does  not  pulverize  well,  but  is  likely  to  remain 
cloddy. 

Heavy  soils,  if  subjected  to  alternate  wetting  and  drying, 
become  granular.  The  alternate  expanding  and  contracting 
that  occurs  causes  the  soil  to  break  into  lines  of  fracture  in  all 
directions  and  this  aids  in  the  formation  of  the  much  desired 
granular  structure. 

The  proportion  of  humus  in  a  soil  has  an  influence  on  the 
structure.  Humus  is  somewhat  plastic  and  tends  to  bind  the 
soil  particles  together ;  in  the  case  of  a  clay  soil  this  helps  to 
form  a  granular  structure. 

Lime  benefits  the  structure  of  a  clay  soil.  It  has  a  floccu- 
lating action,  that  is,  the  drawing  together  into  granules  of 
the  fine  particles  of  a  soil  mass.  If  quicklime  is  placed  in  water 
that  contains  soil  particles  in  suspension,  there  is  a  change  in 
arrangement  of  the  particles.  At  first  they  draw  together  in 
groups  that  soon  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  This  is 
flocculation.  It  occurs  when  lime  is  placed  on  a  field  and  is 
one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  such  an  application. 

Freezing  and  thawing  of  water  in   the   soil  influence  soil 


38 


Effective  Farming 


structure.  The  expansion  of  water  when  freezing  is  very  great, 
and  this  force  shatters  clods  of  the  soil,  tending  to  promote 
a  granular  structure.  Repeated  freezing  and  thawing  further 
break  up  the  soil  masses.     A  puddled  soil  is  much  benefited 


Fig.  15.  —  The  plow  is  an  efficient  agent  for  pulverizing  the  soil. 

by  a  good  freezing.  In  fact  when  a  soil  is  puddled  in  the  grow- 
ing season,  it  is  often  impossible  to  get  it  into  good  condition 
until  after  a  heavy  freeze. 

19.    Functions  of  water  in  soil.  —  Water  acts  as  a  solvent 
of  plant-foods.     These  must  be  in  solution  to  be  absorbed  by 


Soils  39 

plants.  Water  is  taken  up  by  the  roots  and  either  becomes  part 
of  the  plant  without  change  or  it  is  decomposed  and  the  ele- 
ments of  which  it  is  composed  are  available  to  become  part  of 
new  compounds  of  the  plant  body.  In  addition  water  keeps 
the  cells  distended,  transfers  food  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to 
another,  and  by  evaporation  from  the  leaves  tends  to  equalize 
the  temperature  of  the  plant. 

Soil  moisture  is  one  of  the  limiting  factors  in  crop  produc- 
tion, for  without  sufficient  water  there  can  be  no  profitable 
crop  growth.  The  quantity  of  water  required  by  a  growing 
crop  is  much  larger  than  might  be  thought.  The  soil  solutions 
taken  up  by  roots  are  very  dilute ;  consequently  large  quanti- 
ties of  water  must  be  carried  up  into  the  plant  for  every  pound 
of  growth  produced.  In  fact  it  has  been  found  that  in  humid 
climates  from  two  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  water 
are  transpired  from  the  leaves  for  every  pound  of  dry  plant 
material  produced  in  a  crop.  In  addition  to  the  water  taken 
up  by  the  plants,  there  is  much  lost  from  the  soil  by  run-off 
from  the  surface,  by  percolation  to  a  depth  below  the  reach 
of  roots,  and  by  evaporation  from  the  surface.  These  condi- 
tions make  it  necessary  in  most  sections  to  conserve  the  soil 
moisture. 

20.  Forms  of  water  in  soil.  —  Water  is  held  in  the  soil  in 
three  forms,  known  as  hygroscopic,  capillary,  and  gravita- 
tional water. 

Hygroscopic  water.  —  This  water  is  held  as  a  very  thin  film 
around  each  soil  particle ;  it  is  absorbed  from  the  air  and  con- 
densed on  the  surfaces  of  the  soil  particles.  Even  in  very  dry  soil, 
this  film- water  surrounds  each  particle.  The  quantity  increases 
according  to  the  moisture-content  of  the  air  and  there  is  more 
in  fine-grained  than  in  coarse-grained  soil,  because  of  the  larger 
area  of  film-surface  exposed.  Also,  the  more  humus  in  a  soil, 
the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  hygroscopic  water  present.  The 
moisture  held  hygroscopically  in  a  soil  cannot  be  absorbed  by 
plants.     In  fact  plants  wilt  for  lack  of  water  if  only  hygro- 


40-  Effective  Farming 

scopic  water  is  present.  However,  it  is  of  some  use  in  hold- 
ing plant-food  in  solution. 

Capillary  water.  —  As  soon  as  the  film  of  hygroscopic  water 
is  satisfied,  a  film  of  capillary  water  begins  to  form  around  the 
hygroscopic  film  and,  as  the  moisture-content  increases,  capil- 
lary water  moves  from  place  to  place  in  the  soil  in  the  same  way 
that  oil  is  carried  through  a  lamp-wick.  It  occupies  much  of 
the  pore  space  in  the  soil  and  moves  in  every  direction,  up, 
down,  sidewise,  from  a  wet  portion  to  a  dryer  portion.  When 
moisture  is  used  by  roots  or  is  evaporated  from  the  surface, 
capillary  water  moves  to  take  the  place  of  that  removed.  Capil- 
lary water  may  be  defined  as  that  water  in  the  soil  that  moves 
from  place  to  place  by  capillary  force.  It  is  the  form  of  water 
taken  up  by  roots  ;  consequently  in  productive  soils  it  is  neces- 
sary that  abundant  capillary  water  be  present  and  that  the 
soil  be  kept  in  a  favorable  condition  for  its  transference. 

Gravitational  loater.  —  If  the  moisture-content  of  a  soil  is 
increased  beyond  a  certain  amount,  a  point  is  reached  where 
the  force  of  gravity  on  the  soil-water  is  stronger  than  is  the 
capillary  force  and,  as  a  result,  drops  of  water  move  downward. 
This  movement  is  known  as  percolation  and  the  water  when  it 
fills  all  the  spaces  is  known  as  gravitational.  Below  a  certain 
level,  the  soil  is  saturated  with  water.  The  distance  of  this 
water-level  below  the  surface  is  determined  by  the  rainfall, 
the  condition  of  drainage,  and  the  kind  of  soil.  The  top  of 
the  water  in  surface  wells  is  the  top  of  the  gravitational  water. 
Whenever  capillary  water  becomes  deficient,  water  from  the 
water-level,  unless  this  is  too  far  below  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
passes  by  capillary  force  to  the  dry  portion. 

Water  in  percolating  to  the  water-level  carries  much  soluble 
plant-food  out  of  reach  of  the  roots.  This  is  known  as  leach- 
ing and  it  is  responsible  for  the  loss  of  much  plant-food  annually. 
If  the  water-level  is  very  near  the  surface,  there  is  too  limited 
a  zone  left  for  capillary  water  and  growth  cannot  continue. 
The  remedy  for  such  a  condition  is  drainage. 


Soils  41 

21.  Control  of  soil-water  by  cropping  methods.  —  As  may 
be  inferred  from  the  foregoing  statements,  the  control  of  water 
is  an  important  factor  in  keeping  soil  in  the  best  condition  for 
profitable  crop  production.  The  farmer  can  increase  water  for 
crops  by  reducing  the  loss  due  to  run-off  and  to  percolation, 
by  reducing  the  quantity  evaporated  from  the  surface,  and  by 
improving  the  structure  of  the  soil,  thus  making  it  possible  for 
the  soil  to  retain  more  water. 

Reducing  run-off  losses.  —  When  land  is  rather  impervious 
to  water  and  in  regions  of  heavj^  rainfall,  the  amount  of  water 
lost  by  run-off  from  the  surface  may  be  excessive,  if  proper 


Fig.  16.  —  A  badly  washed  field. 

precautions  are  not  taken  to  reduce  it.  The  loss  is  occasioned 
largel}^  by  the  water  not  entering  the  soil.  One  remedy  is 
proper  cultivation.  If  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  hard  and  com- 
pact and  all  tillage  operations  are  shallow,  there  is  less  oppor- 
tunity for  water  to  enter  than  if  the  surface  is  loose  and  the  soil 
has  been  cultivated  to  a  good  depth. 

On  hilly  land  the  quantity  of  water  retained  can  be  influenced 
by  laying  the  furrows  to  encircle  the  hill,  thus  making  it  possible 
for  the  water  to  be  retained  on  the  surface  until  much  of  it 
has  time  to  soak  into  the  soil.  This  is  known  as  contour 
plowing.  In  sections  in  which  the  soil  washes  readily,  terraces, 
which  are  low  ridges  of  earth  encircling  the  slope  at  nearly 
a  perfect  level,  are  made  on  the  slopes.     Along  these  terraces 


42  Effective  Farming 

the  flow  of  water  is  decreased,  consequently  it  has  more  time 
to  soak  into  the  soil.  Moreover  the  decreased  flow  tends  to 
lessen  the  amount  of  surface  soil  washed  from  the  field.  In 
many  sections  of  the  United  States,  the  lack  of  proper  terracing 
results  in  excessive  soil  washing,  which  becomes  so  serious  in 
neglected  or  improperly  farmed  areas  as  to  ruin  fields.  The 
result  of  excessive  soil  washing  is  pictured  in  Fig.  16. 

Reducing  percolation  losses.  —  The  loss  of  water  and  soluble 
plant-food  by  percolation  is  greater  in  sandy  soils,  especially 
if  they  have  an  open  subsoil,  than  in  those  of  finer  texture.  To 
prevent  this  loss,  the  surface  should  be  compacted  with  a  roller 
or  a  subsurface  packer.  This  has  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  rate 
of  percolation  of  the  water.  It  also  reduces  the  size  of  the  pore 
spaces,  which  increases  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil. 

Reducing  evaporation  losses.  —  In  humid  climates  it  has  been 
found  that  evaporation  during  the  summer  months  may  be 
as  great  as  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  rainfall.  This  ex- 
cessive loss  of  water  can  be  reduced  by  providing  a  mulch  on 
the  surface.  A  mulch  is  a  protective  covering  on  the  soil 
made  for.  the  purpose  of  preventing  loss  by  evaporation.  It 
may  be  either  artificial  or  natural. 

An  artificial  mulch  is  formed  by  spreading  some  such  material 
as  manure,  straw,  leaves,  sawdust,  and  the  like,  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil.  Mulches  of  this  kind  are  very  effective  in  re- 
ducing the  loss  due  to  evaporation,  but  their  use  is  practicable 
only  for  small  areas  of  high-priced  crops,  such  as  strawberries, 
bush-fruits,  and  some  few  kinds  of  vegetables. 

A  natural  mulch  is  formed  by  tilling  the  surface  of  the  soil 
itself.  This  produces  in  the  surface  layer  a  loose,  open  struc- 
ture that  obstructs  capillary  action.  Such  soil  mulches  are 
very  effective  in  reducing  the  loss  of  soil  moisture  by  evapora- 
tion. In  humid  regions  and  in  arid  regions  where  dry-farming 
is  practiced,  from  two  to  three  inches  has  been  found  the  best 
average  depth  for  soil  mulches.  In  arid  regions  where  the  soil 
is  irrigated,  a  greater  depth  can  be  used.     For  fruits  a  depth 


Soils  43 

as  great  as  ten  or  twelve  inches  is  effective.  For  shallow-rooted 
crops  the  depth  must,  of  course,  be  decreased.  Spike-tooth 
harrows  and  weeders  (paragraphs  223  and  225)  are  satisfactory 
implements  for  forming  mulches.  After  a  rain  the  soil  mulch 
must  be  renewed,  especially  on  a  heav}^  soil,  because  the  rain 
has  reestablished  capillary  communication  between  the  lower 
layers  of  the  soil  and  the  surface.  The  mulch  breaks  up  this 
communication. 

In  the  so-called  dry-farming  that  is  practiced  in  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  West,  a  soil  mulch  is  maintained  throughout  the 
whole  3^ear  to  conserve  moisture  from  the  previous  summer 
and  winter  as  well  as  that  of  the  crop-producing  season.  In 
humid  regions  soil  mulches  are  very  effective  during  dry  periods 
in  summer.  In  the  case  of  hoed  crops,  they  may  conserve 
enough  moisture  to  keep  the  plants  growing  normally  during 
the  periods  of  drought.  Often  the  conserving  of  water  for  the 
use  of  plants  during  such  periods  may  be  an  important  factor 
in  the  crop  result.  During  a  drought  in  southern  Illinois  a 
few  years  ago,  the  author  was  shown  two  corn  fields  side  by 
side ;  one  was  suffering  for  the  want  of  water  and  the  other 
was  thrifty  and  apparently  well  supplied  with  moisture.  He 
was  told  that  the  only  difference  in  the  treatment  of  the  fields 
was  that  one  had  been  properly  tilled  to  form  a  soil  mulch  and 
the  other  had  not. 

Soil  mulches,  in  addition  to  conserving  moisture,  improve  the 
physical  condition  of  soil  and,  as  a  result,  increase  its  water- 
holding  capacity,  thus  preventing  losses  due  to  run-off  and 
percolation.  The  tillage  removes  weed  growth,  which  means 
not  only  a  saving  of  the  plant-food  that  the  roots  absorb,  but 
also  the  moisture. 

Improving  soil  structure  to  increase  soil-water.  —  By  practicing 
suitable  tillage  and  by  adding  humus-forming  matter,  soil 
structure  may  be  improved  to  increase  the  moisture-holding 
capacity.  A  clay  soil,  if  worked  at  the  proper  time,  is  made 
more  granular,  and  put  into  condition  to  retain  more  water. 


44  Effective  Farming 

The  addition  of  humus-forming  materials,  such  as  farm  manure, 
green-manure,  or  muck,  increases  the  capacity  of  a  soil,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  sandy,  to  retain  water.  Humus  has  the  power  of 
absorbing  and  retaining  water  and  when  added  to  soil  increases 
the  water-content.  Humus  also  reduces  the  size  of  many  of 
the  pore  spaces,  and,  in  the  case  of  a  sandy  soil,  results  in  a 
finer  soil  that  is  more  retentive  of  water. 

22.  Irrigation.  —  In  arid  and  semi-arid  regions  irrigation,  or 
the  artificial  supplying  of  water  to  soil,  is  necessary  for  crop 
production.  In  these  regions  large  irrigation  systems  that 
supply  vast  areas  are  installed  and  water  rights  are  sold  with 
the  property,  for  without  the  water  the  land  is  practically  worth- 
less for  crop  production. 

In  humid  regions  irrigation  is  sometimes  practicable,  for 
in  certain  sections  the  rainfall  is  so  distributed  that  periods  of 
drought  are  likely  to  occur  during  the  growing  season  with  a 
consequent  complete  or  partial  loss  of  the  crop.  Vegetable- 
gardens,  nurseries,  small-fruit  plantations,  and  greenhouses 
are  often  irrigated,  but  for  less  intensive  farming  the  supplying 
of  water  artificially  is  not  often  profitable. 

In  general,  four  methods  are  in  use  for  distributing  water  in 
irrigation.  These  are  overhead  irrigation,  sub-irrigation,  flood- 
ing, and  furrow  irrigation. 

Overhead  irrigation.  —  In  humid  regions  overhead  irrigation 
is  used  largely  for  watering  market-garden  crops,  fruit  crops, 
and  in  greenhouses.  A  system  of  overhead  pipes  is  arranged  in 
parallel  lines  across  the  area  to  be  irrigated.  These  pipes, 
which  are  fitted  with  small  holes  at  regular  intervals,  are  con- 
nected with  a  water-supply  system  and  water  is  delivered  to 
them  under  pressure.  The  holes  in  the  pipes  are  fitted  with 
small  nozzles  that  cause  the  water  passing  through  them  to 
break  into  a  spray,  thus  preventing  the  packing  of  the  soil 
that  would  result  were  the  water  to  reach  the  ground  as  a  stream. 
Fig.  17  shows  an  irrigated  garden  of  the  Irrigated  Farms  Com- 
pany near  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 


Soils 


45 


Suh-irrigation.  —  The  distributing  of  water  through  pipes 
or  Unes  of  tile  placed  underneath  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  called  sub-irrigation.  Perforations  in  the  pipe  or  joints  be- 
tween the  tile  allow  the  water  to  pass  into  the  soil.  It  is  carried 
to  the  roots  by  capillary  attraction.  This  method  is  used  in 
humid  climates  and  is  applicable  to  shallow-rooted  crops.  One 
difficulty  is  that  the  pipes  are  likely  to  become  clogged  by  roots. 


-i— '^ M 

'^tlv-'  ^0^^^-^^.:^    1 

Fig.  17.  —  Vegetables  grown  under  irrigation. 

When  a  soil  is  sandy  and  is  underlaid  at  a  depth  of  three  or  four 
feet  by  a  stratum  of  clay,  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  in- 
stallation of  a  sub-irrigation  system,  because  the  soil  can  be 
saturated  and  the  pipes  emptied  quickly.  Since  the  pipes 
are  usually  empty,  the  roots  do  not  enter  them  as  they  would 
if  they  held  water  for  a  greater  part  of  the  time.  This  system 
is  used  largely  in  truck-farming.  In  the  vicinity  of  Sanford, 
Florida,  it  has  been  extensively  employed  for  irrigating  soil 
used  for  celery  and  other  vegetable  crops. 


46 


Effective  Farming 


Flooding.  —  The  method  termed  flooding  is  employed 
principally  for  watering  grain  fields.  When  a  field  is  to  be  wa- 
tered, the  area  is  covered  with  a  sheet  of  water  from  the  supply- 
ditch  which  is  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  field.  This 
method  is  used  chiefly  in  arid  and  semi-arid  regions. 

Furrow  irrigation.  —  In  furrow  irrigation,  the  water  from 
the  supply-ditch  is  conducted  into  furrows  that  have  been 
plowed    across    the    land.      The    water    in    the    furrows    will 

soak  into  the  soil 
by  capillary  force  un- 
til the  whole  area 
has  been  watered. 
This  system  is  espe- 
cially applicable  to 
fruits  and  vegetables 
and  is  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  western 
part  of  the  United 
States,  although  it  is 
found  installed  in  a 
few  places  in  the 
East  and  Southeast. 
In  Fig.  18  is  shown 
a  section  of  an  orange 
grove  in  California 
watered  by  furrow 
irrigation. 

23.  Soil  drainage.  —  Lowering  the  water-level  by  drainage 
is  the  farmer's  method  of  reducing  the  quantity  of  water  in 
the  soil.  There  are  many  large  areas  of  land  in  the  United 
States  that  are  practically  worthless  for  farming  because  of  too 
much  water  and  by  the  installation  of  proper  drainage-systems 
many  such  areas  could  be  made  to  produce  abundant  crops. 
On  many  farms  there  are  low  wet  places  that,  if  drained,  could 
be  used  to  increase  the  tillable  land.     Drained  land  is  usually 


Fig.  18.  —  Furrow  irrigation  in  a  California 
citrus  grove. 


Soils 


47 


very  valuable  for  cropping  purposes,  as  fertile  soil  from  higher 
localities  has  generally  been  washed  down  to  the  low  areas  for 
a  long  time  before  draining.  If  the  place  is  swampy,  vegeta- 
tion may  have  been  accumulating  and  decaying  for  years,  thus 
forming  muck,  an  extremely  valuable  soil  type  for  certain 
crops.  There  are  two  methods  employed  in  land  drainage, 
(1)  the  open-ditch  method,  and  (2)  the  underdrainage  method. 
Open-ditch  drainage.  —  When  land  is  so  level  that  very  little 
grade  from  the  beginning  of  the  ditch  to  the  outlet  is  possible, 
open-ditch  drainage  is  employed  to  lower  the  water-level. 
Fig.  19  shows  such  a 
ditch  on  level  land 
in  New  Jersey.  Open 
ditches  are  objec- 
tionable and  are  not 
used  when  under- 
drainage can  be  em- 
ployed. They  oc- 
cupy land  that,  if 
underdrained,  could 
be  tilled,  they  inter- 
fere with  the  tillage 
and  other  cropping 
operations  of  the 
farm,  the  ditch 
banks  promote  the 
growth  of  weeds, 
and  the  ditches  must  be  cleaned  out  periodically,  which  is  an 
expense  not  necessary  with  underdrains.  However,  with  all 
these  objections,  open  ditches  are  useful  and  can  often  be  em- 
ployed profitably  where  underdrainage  is  not  practicable.  Large 
areas  of  level  muck  land  can  often  be  effectively  drained  by 
means  of  open  ditches  that  could  not  possibly  be  drained  by 
any  other  method.  This  is  the  condition  of  the  land  shown 
in  Fig.  19. 


Fig.  19. 


An  open  drainage  ditch  in  muck  soil 
in  New  Jersey. 


48  Effective  Farming 

Under  drainage.  —  Usually  in  underdrainage,  short  sections 
of  burned  clay  tile  are  placed  end  to  end  in  a  ditch  which  is 
immediately  filled  with  earth.  Thus  the  land  above  the  tile 
can  be  farmed.  Before  laying  the  tile,  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
is  smoothed  and  accurately  graded.  The  water  enters  the 
tile  through  the  joints  and,  encountering  a  smooth  channel, 
flows  to  the  outlet.  Tile  drains  operate  best  if  the  grade  is 
one  or  two  feet  in  a  hundred,  but  they  will  operate  satisfactorily 
if  the  grade  is  only  three  or  four  inches  in  a  hundred  feet,  pro- 
vided it  is  uniform.  The  depths  of  drains  should  be  from  two 
feet  for  a  clay  loam  or  other  moderately  heavy  soil  to  three  and 
one-half  feet  for  an  open  soil  like  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam. 
The  penetration  of  roots  in  clay  loam  is  less  deep  than  in  the 
more  open  soil.  The  distance  between  the  drains  is  governed 
largely  by  the  kind  of  soil  and  its  wetness.  For  general  farm- 
ing, there  should  never  be  more  than  one  hundred  feet  between 
the  drains ;  if  the  soil  is  heavy  and  badly  in  need  of  drainage  the 
distance  should  be  much  less.  The  outlet  of  the  ditch  usually 
requires  protection.  The  tile  here  are  often  exposed  and,  to 
avoid  breakage,  a  length  of  iron  pipe  can  be  used  advanta- 
geously in  place  of  the  last  few  tile  or  the  outlet  can  be  pro- 
tected by  a  wall  of  masonry. 

24.  Air  in  soil.  —  Oxygen,  carbon  dioxide,  and  nitrogen  of 
soil  air  are  needed  in  plant  growth.  Oxygen  must  be  pres- 
ent, as  seed  will  not  sprout  nor  plants  grow  without  it.  A 
soil  saturated  with  gravitational  water  does  not  contain  oxy- 
gen, because  the  water  has  crowded  out  the  air  and  occupies 
all  the  pore  spaces.  A  plant  kept  even  for  a  relatively  short 
time  in  a  water-logged  soil  will  die  for  want  of  oxygen  about 
its  roots.  Water  standing  on  a  field  for  even  a  few  days  is 
likely  to  result  in  the  loss  of  the  crop. 

The  oxygen  is  also  needed  for  the  oxidation  of  the  organic 
matter  in  the  formation  of  humus.  If  this  did  not  take  place 
in  the  soil,  there  would  soon  be  more  undecayed  organic  matter 
than  live  plants  on  the  earth.     A  sod  turned  under  in  a  soil 


Soils  49 

that  is  in  need  of  surface  drainage  will  not  decay  for  several 
years,  due  to  the  absence  of  air,  but  sod  turned  under  in  a  well- 
aerated  soil  will  decay  in  a  few  months. 

The  carbon  dioxide  of  the  soil  air  gets  into  the  water  of  the 
soil,  where  it  aids  in  making  plant-food  more  readily  soluble. 
Water  containing  carbon  dioxide  is  a  much  better  solvent  of 
plant-food  than  is  pure  water. 

The  nitrogen  of  the  soil  air  is  needed  in  the  life  process  of 
the  bacteria  that  live  in  the  soil  and  on  the  roots  of  the 
legumes  —  clover,  peas,  and  the  like.  Some  of  these  bacteria 
take  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  convert  it  into  soluble  forms 
that  are  available  as  plant-food.  Free  nitrogen  cannot  be  taken 
up  as  food  by  roots  until  it  has  been  combined  with  certain 
elements  to  form  a  soluble  compound. 

All  the  tillage  practices  aerate  the  soil.  Thus  one  of  the 
benefits  of  tillage  is  to  increase  the  quantity  of  air. 

25.  Bacteria  in  soil.  —  The  minute  organisms  known  as 
bacteria  form  a  vefy  essential  contituent  of  soil.  In  fact  if 
there  were  no  bacteria  in  soil,  there  would  be  no  plant  growth. 
A  very  important  effect  of  bacteria  in  soil  is  the  decay  of  or- 
ganic matter  to  form  humus.  Bacteria  also  have  an  eifect  on 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  that  is  available  in  soils.  Nitrogen 
of  organic  matter  is  made  available  by  the  process  of  nitrifica- 
tion. In  this  process  the  work  of  three  forms  of  bacteria  is 
necessary;  the  first  form  changes  the  organic  nitrogenous 
compounds  into  ammonia,  the  second,  changes  the  ammonia 
into  compounds  called  nitrites,  and  the  third,  changes  the 
nitrites  into  nitrates.  These  compounds  are  available  as  plant- 
food  and  in  this  form  the  nitrogen  is  useful  to  most  crops. 

What  is  termed  denitrification  sometimes  takes  place  in  soils 
This  is  an  undesirable  process,  the  reverse  of  nitrification,  and 
is  the  work  of  bacteria  that  change  the  nitrates  into  nitrites. 
From  nitrites  other  bacteria  are  likely  to  change  the  compounds 
into  ammonia  and  finally  into  fl-ee  nitrogen,  which  means  a 
loss  of  nitrogen  that  had  been  available  as  plant-food.     It  has 


50 


Effective  Farming 


been  found,  however,  that,  if  the  soil  is  kept  in  good  physical 
condition  and  is  well  drained,  denitrification  probably  will 
not  occur.     This,  then,  is  another  reason  for  handling  the  soil 

in  a  manner  to  keep 
it  in  good  tilth. 

As  stated  in  para- 
graph 24,  bacteria 
that  live  on  the  roots 
of  legumes  are  able 
to  take  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  convert 
it  into  a  soluble 
form.  On  the  roots 
of  legumes  that  are 
growing  under  f  avor- 
able  conditions, 
there  are  tubercules, 
or  knots  (Fig.  20). 
In  these  Uve  the  bac- 
teria that  do  the 
work  of  changing  the 
nitrogen  into  a  solu- 
ble form.  The  bac- 
teria receive  food 
from  the  plant  on 
which  they  are  found 
and  in  turn  benefit 
their  hosts  by  mak- 

FiG.  20.  —  Cowpea  root  showing  tubercles.  •       xi.       -j.  i 

mg  the  nitrogen  solu- 
ble. If  the  legumes  are  properly  inoculated  with  bacteria,  some 
of  the  nitrogen  may  remain  for  crops  that  grow  later  in  the  soil. 
Thus  the  land  on  which  clovers  or  other  legumes  are  growing 
is  richer  in  nitrogen  than  before  the  crop  was  planted.  This 
accounts  for  the  good  crops  that  usually  follow  legumes  on 
a  field.     Legumes   are   often   planted   and,   instead   of   being 


k 


Soils  51 

harvested,  are  plowed  underneath  the  soil  to  enrich  it.     Such 
a  crop  is  known  as  a  green-manure.     (See  paragraph  27.) 

Each  kind  of  legume  seems  to  have  its  own  particular  kind 
of  bacteria  on  the  roots  of  the  plants.  If  the  right  sort  of 
bacteria  is  not  present  in  the  soil,  the  crop  will  not  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  added  available  nitrogen,  for  no  bacteria  will 
be  found  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  to  change  the  free  nitrogen. 
The  bacteria  multiply  so  rapidly,  however,  that  a  field  can 
easily  be  inoculated  with  the  proper  species  of  bacteria.  This 
is  accompUshed,  provided  tubercules  are  found  on  the  plants, 
by  spreading,  on  the  land  to  be  inoculated,  soil  from  a  field  where 
the  same  kind  of  crop  has  been  growing.  About  five  or  six 
bushels  of  soil  to  the  acre  is  sufficient,  if  it  is  spread  thinly 
and  harrowed  well  into  the  soil  at  once.  The  spreading 
should  be  done  on  a  dark  cloudy  day  or  after  sundown,  be- 
cause sunshine  kills  bacteria.  Pure  cultures  of  bacteria  for 
inoculating  the  seed  of  legumes  can  be  obtained  from  seeds- 
men and  in  small  quantities  from  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  These  cultures  are  mixed  with  water 
and  spread  over  the  seed,  which  is  to  be  planted  and,  in  this 
way,  the  bacteria  are  carried  into  the  soil. 


QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  is  soil  and  of  what  is  it  composed  ? 

2.  What  are  the  benefits  of  humus  in  the  soil  ? 

3.  Distinguish  between  residual  and  cumulose  soils. 

4.  What  is  a  humid  soil,  a  light  soil,  a  loam,  a  silty  soil  ? 

5.  Explain  the  three  so-called  forms  of  soil-water. 

6.  Tell  ways  in  which  the  farmer  can  increase  the  moisture-con- 
tent of  his  soil. 

7.  Of  what  use  is  a  soil  mulch  ? 

8.  Under  what  conditions  is  irrigation  practicable  in  humid  cli- 
mates ? 

9.  Why  is  air  needed  in  a  soil? 

10.  How  does  a  crop  of  clover  benefit  the  land? 

11.  Distinguish  between  soil  texture  and  soil  structure. 


52  Effective  Farming 

EXERCISES 

1.  Soil  constituents.  —  Place  a  handful  of  loam  in  a  tall  bottle  or 
a  mason  jar;  nearly  fill  the  vessel  with  water  and  shake  for  several 
seconds,  then  allow  the  soil  to  settle.  What  can  you  say  of  the  sizes 
of  the  mineral  particles  of  this  soil? 

Also,  place  a  few  grains  of  rich  garden  soil  on  an  asbestos-covered 
screen  and  heat  until  the  soil  becomes  red  hot.  Does  an  odor  result? 
What  are  you  burning  out  of  the  soil  ? 

2.  Types  of  soil.  —  Write  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils  at 
Washington  for  a  soil  survey  pamphlet  of  your  county,  if  one  has 
been  issued.  Study  the  maps  and  descriptions  in  this  pamphlet. 
Visit,  if  possible,  each  of  the  soil  types  and  collect  samples  and  classify 
them  according  to  name.  Examine  each  of  the  soil  types  for  color  and 
texture.  What  kinds  of  crops  are  usually  grown  on  each  soil  type? 
Were  you  choosing  a  farm  in  your  county  which  type  would  you  select? 

3.  Water  in  soil.  —  Place  a  small  quantity  of  air-dry  soil  in  a  test 
tube  and  heat  carefully  over  a  gas  or  alcohol  flame.     Moisture  will 

collect  on  the  sides  of  the  tube.  This  mois- 
ture was  held  largely  in  the  soil  as  hygroscopic 
water. 

Arrange  four  lamp  chimneys  as  shown  in 
Fig.  21.     Using  two  of  the  chimneys,  place 
dry  clay  soil  in  one  and  dry  sand  in  the  other 
so  that  the  soil  stands  at  the  same  height  in 
Fig.  21.  —  Apparatus  for    ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^      pj^^^  ^^^    tumblers  beneath 
soil  exercises  with  wat^r.  ,  ,  ,  ^  ^  .  « 

each  and  pour  the  same  quantity  ot  water 

into  the  tops.  Record  the  time  required  for  water  to  drip  from  each 
tube.  What  force  caused  the  water  to  percolate  ?  What  form  of  soil- 
water  dripped  from  the  tubes  ?  Compute  the  water  in  each  tube  after 
dripping  has  ceased.     Which  soil  retained  the  more  water  ? 

Arrange  the  other  tubes  as  just  directed  and  place  the  bottom  of 
each  in  a  tumbler  partly  filled  with  water.  Record  th&  time  necessary 
for  moisture  to  reach  the  top  in  each  kind  of  soil.  What  force  caused 
the  water  to  rise  against  gravity  ?  What  form  of  soil-water  is  in  these 
tubes  ?  How  much  water  was  taken  into  the  soil  in  each  tube  ?  Try 
this  experiment  with  long  glass  tubes.     Explain  the  results. 

Place  a  quantity  of  sand  in  a  pan  and  gradually  let  water  drop  on 
the  sand  at  one  side  of  the  pan.  Eventually,  all  the  soil  in  the  pan  be- 
comes wet.     What  force  carries  the  water  ? 

4.  Soil  mulch.  —  Place  sand  in  two  chimneys  and  on  the  sand  in 
one  place  a  layer  of  fine,  dry  soil.     Leave  the  other  uncovered.     Place 


Soils  53 

the  bottoms  in  water  and  observe  what  happens  when  the  moisture 
reaches  the  fine  soil.     Of  what  use  is  a  soil  mulch? 

5.  Influence  of  lime  on  soil  structure.  —  Make  four  wooden  molds 
one  inch  by  one  inch  by  four  inches.  Fit  a  layer  of  cheese-cloth  into 
each  allowing  an  inch  or  so  to  stick  out  from  the  sides.  Weigh  out  four 
one  hundred-gram  lots  of  dry  clay  soil.  To  one  lot  add  one  gram  of 
caustic  lime  ;  to  a  second  lot,  five  grams  ;  to  a  third  lot,  ten  grams  ;  add 
no  lime  to  the  fourth.  Mix  the  lime  and  the  clay.  To  each  sample 
add  just  enough  water  to  make  the  soil  plastic  and  press  the  four  lots 
of  soil  into  the  four  molds.  Remove  each  lot  from  the  mold,  being 
careful  to  retain  the  shape.  As  soon  as  you  take  them  from  the  mold, 
mark  a  number  on  each  brick  to  designate  it.  Put  the  bricks  away  to 
dry.  When  thoroughly  dry,  break  them  into  pieces  and  observe  the 
difference  in  the  ease  of  breaking.  What  effect  does  the  application  of 
lime  have  on  the  structure  of  a  clay  soil? 

6.  Air  in  soil.  —  Place  some  soil  in  a  tumbler  and  pour  water  on  it 
until  a  small  quantity  stands  over  the  surface.  Notice  the  bubbles 
passing  through  the  water.  These  are  bubbles  of  air  caused  by  the 
water  displacing  the  air  in  the  soil.  Get  two  tin  cans  of  the  same  size. 
Punch  holes  in  the  bottom  of  one  and  not  in  the  other.  Put  soil  in  the 
cans  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top  and  plant  six  grains  of  wheat  in  each 
can.  Keep  the  soil  in  one  can  saturated  with  water  and  in  the  other 
one  moist,  but  not  too  wet.  The  seeds  will  not  sprout  in  the  very 
wet  soil.     Why  is  this? 

Saturate  the  soil  in  a  tumbler  in  which  a  healthy  plant  is  growing. 
Keep  the  soil  wet.  Observe  results.  What  is  the  condition  of  the 
soil?     What  does  it  lack  that  is  needed  by  a  growing  plant? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,   Vol.  VI,  pp.  320- 

353.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Snyder,  Harry,  Soils  and  Fertilizer.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman,  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Lyon,  T.  L.,  Soils  and  Fertilizers.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Burkett,  C.  W.,  Soils.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Bang,  F.  H.,  The  Soil.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Hopkins,  C.  G.,  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Fletcher,  S.  W.,  Soils.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Hall,  A.  D.,  The  Soil.     Button  and  Co. 
Whiting,  A.  L.,  Soil  Biology  Manual.    Wiley  and  Sons. 


54  Effective  Farming 

McCall,  A.  G.,  Studies  of  Soils.     Wiley  and  Sons. 

Mosier,  J.  G.,  and  Gustafson,  A.  F.,  Soil  Physics  and  Management. 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 
Whitson,  A.  R.,  and  Walster,  H.  L.,  Soils  and  Soil  Fertility.     Webb 

Publishing  Co. 
Hunt,  T.  F.,  and  Burkett,  C.  W.,  Soils  and  Crops.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Massey,  W.  F.,  Practical  Farming.     A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 
Voorhees,  Edward  B.,  Principles  of  Agriculture.     Silver,  Burdett  and 

Company. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.    Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular 

94,    The   Mangum   Terrace    and    its    Relation    to    Efficient    Farm 

Management. 
U.   S.    Department   of  Agriculture    Bulletin    512,    Prevention    of   the 

Erosion  of  Farm  Lands  by  Terracing. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  524,  Tile  Drainage  on  the  Farm. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  761,  Management  of  Muck  Land  Farms. 


CHAPTER   IV 
SOIL    FERTILITY 

The  food  elements  of  plants. 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium. 
Maintaining  the  plant-food  supply. 
Removal  of  plant-food  from  the  soil. 
Benefits  of  crop  rotation. 
Feeding  live-stock  in  relation  to  soil  fertility. 

Green-Manure 
Use  of  green-manure  crops. 
Crops  used  for  green-manure. 

Red  clover,  crimson  clover,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  vetches,  Canada 
field  peas,  velvet  beans,  beggarweed,  bur  clover,  rye, 
buckwheat. 

Farm  Manure 
Importance  of  farm  manure. 
Kinds  of  farm  manure. 

Horse,  cow,  hog,  sheep,  poultry. 
Composition  and  character  of  farm  manure. 

Influence  of  litter. 

Influence  of  class  of  animal. 

Influence  of  age  of  animal. 

Influence  of  kind  of  work  done  by  animal. 

Influence  of  feed. 

Losses  due  to  improper  handling. 
Methods  of  handhng  manure. 

Hauling  manure  direct  to  the  field. 

Use  of  a  concrete  pit. 

Use  of  a  covered  barnyard. 

Allowing  manure  to  accumulate  in  stalls. 
Methods  of  applying  manure. 

The  handling  of  the  soil  in  respect  to  its  fertility  we  are  to 
learn  in  this  chapter,  discussed  in  such  subjects  as  the  plant- 
food  elements,  rotation  of  crops,  the  saving  and  application  of 

55 


56  Effective  Farming 

stable  manures,  the  growing  of  green-manure  crops.  We 
consider  here  what  may  be  called  the  home  practices  and  sup- 
plies. To  supply  humus  is  one  of  the  great  necessities  in 
farming,  as  well  as  to  add  directly  to  the  plant-food  content 
of  the  soil.  The  element  of  conservation,  or  saving,  is  also 
very  important,  for  we  cannot  make  headway  if  we  neglect 
or  waste  the  materials  produced  on  the  farm.  The  soil  and 
the  live-stock  can  utilize  most  of  the  wastes  and  the  materials 
not  sent  directly  to  the  market  or  used  as  food  for  human 
beings  and  animals. 

26.  The  food  elements  of  plants.  —  In  order  that  normal 
crops  may  be  produced,  all  of  the  food  elements  to  be  taken 
<  up  by  the  plants  must  be  present  in  the  soil  and  in  an  available 
form  to  be  absorbed  by  the  roots.  Investigation  has  shown 
that  only  three  of  these  elements  in  the  soil,  —  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium,  —  are  likely  to  be  low  in  amount.  A 
study  of  these  elements,  therefore,  is  of  importance  to  farmers, 
for  if  any  one  of  them  becomes  deficient,  profitable  crop 
production  cannot  possibly  continue  on  that  soil.  These 
three  elements  are  contained  in  fertilizers  and  barnyard  ma- 
nure. They  are  among  the  foods  taken  up  by  plants  from  the 
soil;  consequently,  whenever  weeds,  stubble,  or  crops  grown 
for  the  purpose  are  turned  underneath  the  furrow-slice,  the 
food  in  the  plants  is  returned  to  the  soil. 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  —  Nitrogen  is  usually 
taken  up  by  plants  in  the  nitrate  form.  Plants  Like  rice  that 
grow  on  soil  covered  with  water  can  utilize  ammonia.  It  has 
recently  been  shown,  too,  that  some  crops  use  nitrogenous  or- 
ganic matter.  Phosphorus  and  potassium  are  found  in  soil  in 
mineral  compounds.  Many  of  these  are  almost  insoluble,  but 
they  change  slowly  into  soluble  compounds,  thus  becoming 
available  as  plant-food. 

Unfortunately  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  terms  used  to 
express  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  content  of 
soils,  manures,  and  fertilizers.     In  some  instances  the  names 


Soil  Fertility  57 

of  the  elements  are  used,  and  in  others  the  terms  ammonia, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 

Ammonia  is  a  compound  made  up  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen, 
of  which  82.3  per  cent  is  nitrogen.  To  convert  a  number  repre- 
senting ammonia  into  terms  of  nitrogen,  multiply  by  .823 ; 
and  to  convert  a  number  representing  nitrogen  into  terms  of 
ammonia  divide  by  .823  (or  multiply  by  1.215).  (See  para- 
graph 41.) 

When  the  term  phosphoric  acid  is  used,  it  does  not  have 
reference  to  the  common  chemical  by  that  name,  but  to  a 
substance  known  as  phosphoric  anhydride,  or  phosphorus  pen- 
toxide,  which  contains  43.66  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  To  con- 
vert a  number  representing  phosphoric  acid  into  terms  of  phos- 
phorus multiply  by  .4366  and  to  convert  a  number  representing 
phosphorus  into  terms  of  phosphoric  acid  divide  by  .4366  (or 
multiply  by  2.29). 

The  term  potash  refers  to  potassium  oxide,  a  compound 
that  contains  83  per  cent  potassium.  To  convert  a  number 
representing  potash  into  terms  of  potassium  multiply  by  .83, 
and  to  convert  a  number  representing  potassium  into  terms 
of  potash  divide  by  .83  (or  multiply  by  1.024). 

Formerly  the  names  of  the  compounds  were  most  often  used, 
but  the  tendency  of  late  is  to  use  the  names  of  the  elements. 
This  latter  method  is  much  simpler.  In  some  states  the  fer- 
tilizer laws  (paragraph  40)  require  that  the  phosphorus  and 
potassium  content  of  fertihzers  be  expressed  in  the  terms  of 
the  elements ;  in  other  states  they  must  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  compounds. 

Maintaining  the  plant-food  supply.  —  In  most  virgin  soils 
the  supply  of  plant-food  is  comparatively  large  and  crops 
can  be  grown  for  a  number  of  years  without  returning  any  to 
the  soil.  As  crops  continue  to  be  removed,  however,  the 
store  of  plant-food  becomes  less  and  less  until  finally  the  yields 
decrease  so  much  that,  unless  some  rational  farming  practice 
is   adopted,   the   soil   will   wear   out.     Some   virgin   soils   are 


58  Effective  Farming 

richer  than  others  and  will  last  longer,  but  even  very  rich 
soils  will  wear  out  in  time  unless  the  supply  of  plant-food  is 
replenished. 

The  growing  of  legumes  is  one  method  of  helping  to  main- 
tain soil  fertility,  but,  as  the  legumes  are  instrumental  in  adding 
only  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  some  other  way  must  be  found 
to  supply  phosphorus  and  potassium.  To  this  end  certain 
fertiUzer  materials  containing  these  elements  must  be  added 
to  the  soil.  A  list  and  descriptions  of  these  are  given  on  sub- 
sequent pages. 

Investigation  by  means  of  chemical  analyses  and  practical 
field  tests  can  determine  whether  or  not  certain  elements  are 
lacking  in  a  soil.  The  experiment  stations  in  most  states  have 
made  these  tests  for  the  important  soil  types  and  their  officers 
are  able  and  willing  to  give  information  about  the  various  needs 
of  the  soils  in  their  state.  Often  it  will  pay  farmers  to  write 
to  these  men  concerning  the  best  practice  to  follow  in  main- 
taining the  fertility  of  their  farms. 

Removal  of  plant-food  from  the  soil.  —  Plant-food  is  removed 
from  the  soil  in  several  ways,  chiefly  by  cropping,  by  soil 
washing,  and  by  leaching.  A  hundred-bushel  crop  of  corn  will 
remove  from  an  acre  approximately  148  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
23  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  71  pounds  of  potassium.  A 
fifty-bushel  crop  of  wheat  requires  71  pounds  of  nitrogen,  12 
pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  13  pounds  of  potassium.  A  four- 
ton  crop  of  red  clover  takes  160  pounds  of  nitrogen,  20  pounds 
of  phosphorus,  and  120  pounds  of  potassium.  From  these 
figures  it  will  be  seen  that  cropping,  with  the  plants  sold  off 
the  farm,  will  soon  remove  much  plant-food  from  the  soil. 
It  has  also  been  determined  that  only  about  2  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen,  1  per  cent  of  the  phosphorus,  and  ^  per  cent  of  the 
potassium  in  a  soil  is  likely  to  be  available  for  a  crop  in  a  season. 
Experiments  show  that  in  one  of  the  rich  soil  types  of  Illinois, 
if  hundred-bushel  corn  crops  were  removed  each  year,  there 
would  be  nitrogen  enough  in  the  soil  to  last  thirty-four  years ; 


Soil  Fertility  59 

and  in  a  certain  soil  in  Maryland,  if  hundred-bushel  corn  crops 
were  removed  from  the  soil,  there  would  be  a  supply  of  nitrogen 
for  only  nine  years.  Cropping  of  land  without  returning  plant- 
food  to  the  soil  is  not  good  farming. 

The  washing  of  the  soil  removes  much  plant-food.  It  is 
the  top  soil,  the  part  richest  in  humus  and  plant-food,  that  is 
carried  away.  Some  soils  wash  more  readily  than  others; 
those  containing  a  large  proportion  of  silt  and  fine  sand  wash 
very  badly.  Soils  in  the  Southern  States  wash  readily,  largely 
because  washing  may  occur  during  the  entire  winter  as  well  as 
during  other  seasons.  Many  soils  in  that  section,  also,  are  of  a 
texture  that  causes  them  to  wash  readily.  Cover-cropping 
and  terracing  will  help  to  prevent  this.  In  the  Southern 
States  it  is  possible  to  have  a  crop  growing  on  the  soil  all  winter, 
which  helps  to  hold  the  soil  from  washing  and  stores  fertility 
in  the  plants.  These  plants  can  be  cut  for  forage  or  be  turned 
under  in  the  spring  to  supply  humus  and,  if  the  crop  is  a  legume, 
nitrogen  is  added  to  the  soil. 

Terracing  to  prevent  washing  is  necessary  on  many  farms. 
To  be  effective,  the  terraces  should  be  covered  with  vegetation ; 
otherwise  they  may  be  quickly  washed  away.  Grass  is  usually 
employed  as  a  covering.  One  grower  in  South  Carolina  plants 
strawberries  on  his  terraces  and  makes  the  crop  profitable. 

Soluble  foods  are  leached  out  of  the  soil.  The  loss  in  this 
way  is  large  in  some  soils,  especially  in  those  of  a  sandy  nature. 
One  way  to  prevent  loss  by  leaching  is  to  grow  a  crop  on  the 
soil  to  use  up  the  food  before  it  leaches  away.  Cover-crops 
are  useful  for  this  purpose.  More  loss  from  leaching  occurs 
in  warm  climates  than  in  cold,  because  freezing  of  the  ground 
prevents  leaching.  This,  therefore,  is  another  reason  why  the 
farmers  of  the  South  should  use  winter  cover-crops. 

Benefits  of  crop  rotation.  —  Experience  teaches  that  the  con- 
tinuous growing  of  the  same  kind  of  crop,  such  as  cotton,  corn, 
wheat,  on  the  same  land  year  after  year  results  in  the  decrease 
of  the  soil  products.     Rotation  of  crops  should  be  practiced. 


60  Effective  Farming 

In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  United  States  where  wheat 
has  been  grown  continually  on  certain  areas  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  these  pieces  are  no  longer  profitable  for  wheat 
and  some  other  crop  must  be  planted  at  least  once  every  two 
or  three  years.  In  the  Central  States  where  corn  is  the  prin- 
cipal crop,  farmers  have  been  able  to  continue  raising  this 
grain  by  alternating  it  with  some  cereal  crop,  such  as  oats  or 
wheat.  However,  many  progressive  farmers  in  these  regions 
now  include  a  legume  on  each  piece  of  ground  at  stated  inter- 
vals and  find  that  this  method  pays.  In  the  cotton  states 
where  the  continual  cropping  of  cotton  has  been  practiced 
a  long  time,  planters  are  beginning  to  realize  that  they  can 
grow  a  larger  product  if  they  plant  some  other  crop  on  the 
land  at  intervals.  Crimson  clover,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  velvet 
beans,  and  corn  are  excellent  crops  to  go  with  cotton. 

Rotation  makes  it  possible  to  plant  crops  having  different 
length  of  root  systems.  For  example,  red  clover,  which  has 
deep  tap-roots,  and  grains,  which  have  fibrous  roots,  may  be 
planted  in  a  crop  rotation.  Also,  plants  that  make  their  chief 
growth  at  different  times  of  the  year  may  be  planted ;  wheat, 
for  example,  grows  principally  in  early  summer  and  corn  in 
the  late  summer. 

Rotation  of  crops  helps  to  control  weeds.  In  grain  fields 
weeds  are  usually  destroyed  when  the  ground  is  put  into  grass ; 
a  hoed  crop  like  corn  gets  rid  of  weeds  that  may  have  been  a 
pest  in  the  field  when  it  was  planted  to  other  crops. 

Insect  pests  may  be  combated  by  changing  the  crop,  for 
certain  insects  will  migrate  or  starve  if  their  favorite  food  is 
removed.  For  example  the  corn  root- worm  often  becomes  very 
troublesome  when  land  is  continually  cropped  in  corn,  but  this 
pest  can  be  practically  destroyed  by  cropping  the  land  in  other 
plants  for  a  few  years. 

Another  advantage  of  rotation  is  that  one  or  more  legumes 
can  be  included  in  the  rotation.  Even  if  the  plants  are  not 
plowed  under  for  green-manure,  which  is  often  practicable, 


Soil  Fertility  61 

nevertheless  they  add  some  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  In  all  sec- 
tions of  the  country  legumes  suited  to  the  particular  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  can  be  found  and  many  progressive  farmers 
are  now  helping  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  their  soils  by  plant- 
ing legumes  for  green-manure,  for  hay,  for  pasturage,  or  for 
seeds. 

Feeding  live-stock  in  relation  to  soil  fertility.  —  A  business- 
like method  of  returning  to  the  soil  the  fertility  taken  up  by 
crops  is  to  feed  these  crops  to  live-stock,  save  the  manure  care- 
fully to  prevent  excessive  loss  of  plant-food,  and  place  the 
manure  on  the  soil.  Only  part  of  the  plant-food  and  organic 
matter  of  the  feed  remains  in  the  animal  body ;  the  remainder 
is  excreted  in  the  manure.  On  many  live-stock  farms  much 
feed  for  the  animals  is  purchased  and  the  fertilizer  elements 
thus  brought  to  the  farm  are  recovered  in  part  in  the  manure. 
If  legumes  are  in  the  rotation  on  live-stock  farms  and  the  feed 
grown  together  with  that  purchased  are  fed  and  the  manure 
saved,  it  is  possible  to  maintain  the  nitrogen  and  organic 
supply  of  the  soil.  In  some  cases  the  mineral  elements  — 
phosphorus  and  potassium  —  may  need  to  be  purchased,  but, 
as  these  are  not  usually  expensive  in  normal  times,  the  cost  of 
maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil  on  such  farms  is  not  ex- 
cessive. 

GREEN-MANURE 

27.  Use  of  green-manure  crops.  —  A  green-manure  crop 
may  be  defined  as  one  planted  for  the  purpose  of  plowing  under. 
Crops  plowed  under  help  to  maintain  fertility  and  humus 
and  also  act  as  cover- crops,  thus  preventing  excessive  soil 
washing  and  plant-food  leaching.  Often  the  most  economical 
way  of  building  up  a  piece  of  poor  land  is  to  devote  it  entirely 
to  green-manure  for  a  year  or  more.  In  carrying  out  such  a 
practice  legumes  should  be  used,  and  it  will  probably  be  well 
to  use  some  fertilizer  containing  phosphorus  and  potassium 
in  order  that  the  foods  in  the  soil  will  be  balanced  after  nitro- 
gen has  been  added  by  the  legumes. 


62  Effective  Farming 

Legumes  are  the  most  satisfactory  plants  for  green-manure ; 
they  make  a  good  growth  of  foHage,  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil, 
and  their  roots,  in  most  varieties,  reach  down  deep  and  bring 
up  food  that  would  not  be  obtained  by  shallow-rooted  crops. 
The  cheapest  way  to  secure  nitrogen  is  to  plant  legumes  and 
turn  the  crop  under.  Nitrogen,  if  purchased  in  commercial 
fertilizers,  costs  from  fifteen  to  thirty  cents  or  more  a  pound ; 
in  legumes  it  often  costs  the  farmer  less  than  three  cents  a 
pound.  Each  section  of  the  country  has  legumes  that  can 
be  grown  profitably  as  green-manure.  In  Fig.  22  is  shown 
the  result  of  the  growth  of  corn  on  different  plots  of  ground 
at  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station.  The  plots  were 
different  only  in  the  green-manure  crop,  the  kind  and  quantity 
of  fertihzer  used  on  each  of  the  plots  being  the  same.  Notice 
that  the  smallest  growth  was  where  no  green-manure  crop 
was  used,  that  the  next  largest  was  where  rye,  a  grain,  was 
planted,  and  that  the  best  results  were  obtained  where  a 
legume  was  grown. 

28.  Crops  used  for  green-manure.  —  The  crops  listed  in 
the  next  few  paragraphs  are  the  ones  chiefly  used  for  green- 
manure.  In  addition  to  these,  however,  there  are  many  crops 
of  local  importance  that  give  very  good  satisfaction.  One 
should  always  use  a  crop  that  does  well  in  the  region  where  it 
is  to  be  grown. 

Red  clover.  —  Although  red  clover  is  more  often  used  for 
hay  than  for  green-manure,  it  is,  nevertheless,  very  satisfac- 
tory for  the  latter  purpose.  It  is  a  northern-grown  crop. 
The  seed  is  often  sown  in  July  or  August,  eight  to  ten  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre  giving  a  good- stand.  The  clover  may  be 
plowed  under  the  following  spring  or  a  crop  may  be  mowed 
about  the  first  of  June,  the  second  crop  allowed  to  grow,  and 
the  plants  plowed  under  in  the  fall  or  spring. 

Crimson  clover.  —  This  clover  is  a  desirable  crop  for  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  country  from  Delaware  southward.  It  does 
not  do  well  in  the  North.     In  the  South  the  seeds  are  sown 


Soil  Fertility 


63 


Fig.  22.  —  Benefits  of  green-manuring,     a,  corn  grown  with  a  leguminous  cover- 
crop  ;  b,  grown  without  a  cover-crop ;  c,  grown  with  a  rye  cover-crop. 


64  Effective  Farming 

about  August  or  September.  In  the  middle  sections,  as  in 
Maryland,  the  seeding  may  be  done  in  July.  The  plants  are 
usually  plowed  under  in  the  spring,  but  in  some  sections  they 
are  allowed  to  produce  seed  and  are  plowed  under  the  next 
fall  after  planting.  The  usual  acre-rate  of  seeding  is  from  twelve 
to  twenty  pounds. 

Cowpeas.  —  Especially  in  the  South,  cowpeas  are  used  ex- 
tensively for  green-manure.  The  plants  produce  a  large 
quantity  of  foliage ;  consequently  they  return  much  humus 
to  the  soil.  The  seeding  may  be  done  in  the  spring  as  soon 
as  danger  from  frost  is  over  or  may  be  delayed  until  early 
summer.  The  plants  will  then  be  ready  for  plowing  under 
either  early  or  late  in  the  fall.  Usually  two  bushels  of  seed 
are  planted  to  the  acre,  although  some  growers  plant  only 
one  and  secure  a  good  stand. 

Soybeans.  —  Like  cowpeas,  soybeans  make  a  good  growth 
of  foliage  and  are  very  often  used  for  green-manure.  They 
can  be  grown  farther  north  and  are  usually  found  north  of 
Kentucky  and  Kansas,  but  they  do  well  in  the  South,  also. 
They  are  about  equal  to  red  clover  in  the  quantity  of  nitrogen 
added  to  the  soil.  The  seed  should  not  be  planted  until  all 
danger  of  frost  is  past,  the  usual  time  being  about  when  corn 
planting  is  finished.  From  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  of 
seed  are  sown  to  the  acre,  the  large-seeded  varieties  requiring 
the  larger  quantity. 

Vetches.  —  Although  there  are  several  kinds  of  vetches, 
only  the  hairy  vetch  and  the  common  spring  vetch  are  much 
planted  in  America.  The  hairy  vetch  is  known  also  as  sand 
and  as  winter  vetch.  It  is  a  hardy  plant  and  is  grown  as  a 
winter  and  a  summer  crop  both  in  the  North  and  South.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  summer  or  fall  when  used  as  a  winter  crop  and 
in  spring  when  used  as  a  summer  crop.  The  plant  has  a  trail- 
ing habit  and  it  easily  becomes  matted  on  the  ground.  This 
makes  it  difficult  to  turn  under.  To  obviate  this  difficulty, 
the  seed  is  usually  planted  with  rye,  oats,  or  some  other  grain, 


Soil  Fertility  65 

as  the  stems  of  the  grain  prevent  much  of  the  matting  together 
of  the  vines.  From  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds  of  vetch 
and  four  pecks  of  grain  is  the  usual  seeding.  Spring  vetch 
is  similar  to  hairy  vetch  in  appearance  and  growth.  It 
requires  a  cool  climate,  and  is  grown  as  a  spring-planted  crop 
in  the  North  and  as  a  fall-planted  crop  in  the  South  and  the 
Pacific  Coast  States.  The  crop  is  used  most  extensively 
where  it  can  be  planted  in  the  fall  and  is  preferred  by  many 
to  hairy  vetch.  The  usual  range  of  planting  is  from  September 
to  November.  The  seed  is  often  planted  with  oats.  The 
rate  of  planting  varies  from  forty  to  sixty  pounds  of  vetch 
to  an  equal  weight  of  oats.  In  the  California  citrus  regions, 
common  vetch  is  planted  with  barley  as  a  winter  cover-crop. 
The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is  thirty  pounds  of  vetch  and  thirty 
pounds  of  barley.  The  seeds  of  common  vetch  are  somewhat 
larger  than  those  of  hairy  vetch,  which  accounts  for  the  dif- 
ference in  the  rate  of  seeding. 

Canada  field  peas.  —  In  Canada  and  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  -States,  Canada  field  peas  are  much  used  as  a  green- 
manure  crop.  They  are  well  adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  cHmate 
and  make  the  best  growth  in  the  spring  and  early  summer. 
They  are  usually  planted  with  oats.  The  rate  of  seeding 
varies  in  different  sections  from  one  to  two  bushels  of  peas 
to  one  to  two  bushels  of  oats.  The  seed  should  be  planted  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  prepared.  Field  peas 
are  used  as  a  fall-sown  crop  in  California.  From  eighty  to 
ninety  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre. 

Velvet  beans.  —  Especially  in  the  citrus  growing  sections  of 
Florida  and  also  to  some  extent  farther  north,  velvet  beans 
are  planted  for  green-manure.  They  make  a  dense  growth  of 
foliage  and  in  a  grove  care  must  be  taken  that  the  vines  do 
not  get  into  the  trees,  for  they  may  entwine  among  the  branches 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  a  nuisance.  A  few  rows  of 
corn  are  often  planted  to  provide  stems  on  which  the  plants 
can  climb.     In  Florida  the  seed  is  sown  any  time  from  the 

F 


66  Effective  Farming 

middle  of  April  to  the  last  of  May.  The  usual  method  of 
planting  is  in  rows  four  feet  apart  and  two  feet  apart  in  the 
row.  A  space  of  eight  feet  is  left  unplanted  along  the  tree- 
row  on  account  of  the  climbing  habit  of  the  vines.  A  peck  of 
seed  will  plant  an  acre.  In  the  light  soils  of  Florida  practice 
shows  that  the  vines  should  be  dry  and  partly  rotted  before 
they  are  plowed  under.  If  they  are  plowed  under  when  green, 
an  acid  condition  of  the  soil  unfavorable  to  the  trees  may 
result.  October  is  the  usual  time  for  turning  the  soil.  In- 
the  northern  part  of  Florida  early  frosts  will  kill  the  vines  and 
they  will  be  dead  when  it  is  time  to  plow  them  under.  In  the 
southern  and  central  parts  the  vines  should  be  cut  with  a 
mowing  machine  early  in  the  fall  in  order  that  they  will  be 
dead  when  the  land  is  plowed.  In  sections  farther  north  the 
beans  are  often  planted  with  corn  at  the  second  working  of 
the  field.     Their  use  in  these  sections  is  increasing. 

Beggarweed.  —  In  Florida  beggarweed  is  used  for  green- 
manuring  in  citrus  groves.  It  is  a  strong-growing  plant  that 
does  well  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  When  once  planted  it  will 
reseed  itself,  if  it  is  not  cut  too  early  in  the  summer.  About 
eight  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  are  sown  between  the  tree  rows 
about  May  15.  The  plants  should  be  cut  when  they  come 
into  bloom  and  left  on  the  ground  to  enrich  the  soil.  The 
stubble  left  will  shoot  out  and  produce  another  crop.  The 
second  crop  is  allowed  to  make  seed. 

Bur  clover.  —  "  Bur  clover  alone  is  commonly  used  as  a 
green-manure  crop  in  the  orchards  of  California  and  is  often 
so  handled  that  good  volunteer  crops  are  obtained  year  after 
year. 

"  In  the  South,  undoubtedly  the  greatest  value  of  bur  clover 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  cheapest  and  most  easily  handled 
legume  that  can  be  used  as  a  combination  cover  and  green- 
manure  crop.  Even  where  it  makes  a  small  growth  of  only 
a  few  inches  in  height,  this  is  sufficient  to  prevent  to  a  large 
degree  the  washing  of  the  land  in  winter  and  when  plowed 


Soil  Fertility  67 

under  to  add  sufficient  humus  and  nitrogen  to  improve  mate- 
rially the  following  cotton  crop.  It  is  the  most  economical 
legume  to  use  for  this  purpose,  as  when  once  a  stand  has  been 
secured  and  rows  of  the  plants  are  left  to  seed  it  will  volunteer 
from  year  to  year.  The  same  method  can  be  used  with  corn 
or  any  other  intertilled  summer  crop.  There  is  some  diffi- 
culty in  seeding  bur  clover  in  standing  cotton,  as  in  the  harrow- 
ing of  the  bur  clover  seed  some  of  the  ripe  cotton  is  pulled  out 
of  the  bolls.  On  this  account  the  harrowing  should  be  done 
just  after  the  pickers  have  been  through  the  field,  to  avoid  as 
far  as  possible  any  injury  to  the  opened  bolls."  —  From  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  693. 

Rye  and  buckwheat.  —  Crops  other  than  legumes  are  some- 
times grown  for  green-manure.  Rye  is  much  used.  It  adds 
no  nitrogen,  but  it  will  grow  on  very  poor  soil,  often  on  one 
too  poor  to  support  a  legume  and  as  it  makes  a  good  growth  of 
stem  it  adds  much  humus-forming  material  to  the  soil. 

Buckwheat,  in  regions  where  it  does  well,  is  a  good  crop  to 
subdue  new  land.  Its  roots  seem  to  break  up  the  soil  better 
than  those  of  most  other  crops.  Usually  the  plants  are 
allowed  to  mature  and  are  harvested,  but  often  they  are 
plowed  under  as  green-manure.  Buckwheat  is  used  in  many 
sections  as  a  green-manure  crop  in  orchards. 

FARM   MANURE 

29.  Importance  of  farm  manure.  —  The  term  farm  manure 
is  used  in  this  book  to  designate  the  solid  and  liquid  voidings 
of  animals,  together  with  the  litter  with  which  these  voidings 
are  mixed.  Barnyard  manure,  stable  manure,  animal  manure, 
and  stall  manure  are  other  terms  often  used  to  designate  this 
product.  Farm  manure  is  the  most  important  manurial  re- 
source of  the  farm;  it  contains  fertility  that  has  been  drawn 
from  the  soil  and  must  be  returned  to  it,  if  profitable  crop  pro- 
duction is  to  be  maintained.  It  not  only  benefits  the  soil  by 
returning   nitrogen,   phosphorus,  and   potassium,  but   it  ren- 


68  Effective  Farming 

ders  the  stored-up  plant-food  of  the  soil  more  readily  available 
and  adds  humus  and  bacteria  to  the  land.  Beneficial  effects 
of  farm  manure  are  shown  in  Fig.  23,  which  is  a  picture  of  ex- 
perimental plots  at  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
The  plot  at  the  right  had  an  application  of  two  and  one-half 


Fig.   23.  —  Beneficial  effect  of  barnyard  manure.,     a,  no  barnyard  manure 
applied ;  b,  barnyard  manure  applied  at  the  rate  of  2h  tons  to  the  acre. 

tons  of  manure  to  the  acre  and  the  one  at  the  left  had  no  ma- 
nure. Notice  the  difference  in  the  growth  of  the  corn  in  the 
two  plots. 

30.  Kinds  of  farm  manure.  —  Manure  from  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  poultry  are  the  chief  kinds  produced  on  the 
farm.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  bulk  of  the  manure  that  is 
returned  to  the  soil  is  from  cattle  and  horses.  This  is  because 
it  is  somewhat  easier  to  find  ways  of  storing  these  voidings 
than  those  of  the  other  classes  of  farm  animals  and  also  be- 
cause horses  and  cattle  consume  most  of  the  grain  and  rough- 
age of  the  average  farm. 

Horse  manure  is  uniform  in  character ;  the  dung  is  dry  and 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  crude  fiber.  The  manure  fer- 
ments easily,  which  means  excessive  loss  of  nitrogen.  Horse 
manure  also  loses  much  fertility  by  reason  of  firefanging,  a 


Soil  Fertility  69 

process  that  causes  the  manure  to  turn  white  whenever  a  pile 
is  left  exposed  for  a  time.  Firefanging  is  caused  by  fungi 
and  the  manure  so  affected  is  of  little  value.  The  liquid  por- 
tion of  horse  manure  is  rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds,  but 
soon  after  it  is  voided  bacteria  start  to  work  on  these  com- 
pounds and  set  ammonia,  a  gas,  free.  As  ammonia  contains 
nitrogen,  the  fermentation  means  a  loss  of  this  product.  Much 
of  the  fertility  of  horse  manure  can  be  saved  by  mixing  the 
manure  with  that  of  cattle  in  the  storage  place.  On  account 
of  its  dry  condition  horse  manure  is  known  as  a  hot  manure. 

Cow  manure  is  about  equal  in  fertilizing  value  to  horse  ma- 
nure, but  it  contains  less  fiber,  consequently,  less  humus-form- 
ing material.  Owing  to  its  large  percentage  of  moisture,  it  is 
known  as  a  cold  manure.  A  ton  of  cow  manure  contains  on 
the  average  about  half  as  much  dry  matter  as  a  ton  of  horse 
nianure.  It  does  not  firefang  and  it  decomposes  slowly. 
When  stored  it  should  be  protected  from  the  weather  to  pre- 
vent loss  of  plant-food. 

Hog  manure,  like  that  of  cattle,  is  a  cold  manure  and  de- 
composes slowly.  The  comparative  quantity  of  plant-food 
it  contains  can  be  learned  from  Table  I. 

Sheep  manure  is  rich  in  nitrogen  and  potassium,  is  dry,  and 
decomposes  rapidly.  It  is  very  concentrated  and  is  often 
sold  in  bags  like  commercial  fertilizer. 

Poultry  manure  is  very  concentrated  and  is  rich  in  nitrogen. 
On  account  of  being  so  concentrated  it  should  be  mixed  with 
litter  or  with  other  kinds  of  manure  when  applied  to  the  soil. 
It  is  very  valuable  for  such  crops  as  onions  that  require  a  large 
quantity  of  nitrogen. 

31.  Composition  and  character  of  farm  manure.  —  Farm 
manure  is  variable  in  composition  and  character,  due  chiefly 
to  the  kind  and  quantity  of  litter  used,  the  class  of  animals  by 
which  the  manure  is  produced,  the  age  and  the  kind  of  work 
done  by  the  animal,  the  feed  of  the  animal,  and  the  way  in 
which  the  manure  is  handled. 


70 


Effective  Farming 


Influence  of  litter  on  manure.  —  The  kind  and  quantity  of 
litter  used  has  much  to  do  with  the  composition  of  the  manure. 
For  example  if  sawdust  and  shavings  are  the  bedding  material, 
there  is  less  fertility  than  if  oat  straw  is  used  and,  in  addition, 
oat  straw  decomposes  more  rapidly  than  shavings  or  saw- 
dust, which  is  an  advantage.  Also,  if  manure  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  litter,  obviously  it  is  less  valuable  than  if  it  con- 
tains a  smaller  quantity. 

TABLE   I 

The  Composition  of  Fresh  Manure 


Excrement 

Percentage  of 

Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Sohd  80  per  cent     .     . 

Horse  <  Liquid  20  per  cent  .     . 

Whole  manure    .     .     . 

'  Solid  70  per  cent      .     . 

Cow    I  Liquid  30  per  cent  .     . 

[  Whole  manure    .     .     . 

f  SoKd  67  per  cent      .     . 

Sheep  <  Liquid  33  per  cent  .     . 

[  Whole  manure    .     .     . 

f  Sohd  60  per  cent     .     . 
Swine  I  Liquid  40  per  cent  .     . 
[  Whole  manure    . 

75 
90 

78 

85 
92 
86 

60 

85 
68 

80 
97 

87 

0.55 
1.35 
0.70 

0.40 
1.00 
0.60 

0.75 
1.35 
0.95 

0.55 
0.40 
0.50 

0.30 

Trace 
0.25 

0.20 
Trace 
0.15 

0.50 
0.05 
0.35 

0.05 
0.10 
0.35 

0.40 
1.25 
0.55 

0.10 
1.35 
0.45 

0.45 
2.10 
1.00 

0.40 
0.45 
0.40 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.     Fertilizers  and  Crops.     New  York.     1912. 

Influence  of  class  of  animal  on  manure.  —  The  composition 
of  the  manure  from  the  different  classes  of  animals  is  different. 
Thorne  has  found  that  as  an  average  of  several  analyses  made 
by  the  experiment  stations  in  Ohio,  Connecticut,  and  New 
York,  horse  manure  with  straw  contains  .57  per  cent  nitrogen, 
.12  per  cent  phosphorus,  and  .54  per  cent  potassium,  and  cow 
manure  with  straw  contains  .46  per  cent  nitrogen,  .13  per  cent 


Soil  Fertility  71 

phosphorus,  and  .36  per  cent  potassium.  Table  I  shows  the 
difference  in  the  composition  of  manure  from  the  several 
classes  of  farm  animals.  It  must  be  remembered  in  studying 
the  table  that  the  percentages  are  for  fresh  manure  and  that 
too  often  in  the  ordinary  handling  of  manure  not  all  the  fer- 
tility reaches  the  fields. 

Influence  of  age  of  animal  on  manure.  —  A  young  animal, 
since  it  requires  large  quantities  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium  in  the  building  up  of  muscle  and  bone,  takes  more  of 
these  elements  from  the  food  than  does  an  older  animal.  As  a 
result,  manure  from  young  animals  is  less  valuable  pound 
for  pound  than  that  from  mature  animals. 

Influence  on  manure  of  kind  of  work  done  by  animal.  —  How 
the  kind  of  work  done  by  an  animal  influences  the  voidings  can 
well  be  illustrated  in  the  case  of  cattle.  A  cow  giving  milk 
takes  out  of  her  feed  24.5  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  it  contains, 
while  a  fattening  ox  that  has  already  built  up  his  lean-meat 
tissues  and  frame  requires  only  3.9  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  of 
the  feed. 

Influence  of  feed  on  manure.  —  Since  an  animal  will  retain 
in  its  body  only  a  portion  of  the  fertility  elements  of  its  feed, 
it  is  evident  that  when  given  a  rich  feed  it  will  void  a  rich 
manure.  When  a  ration  rich  in  protein  is  fed,  a  manure  rich 
in  nitrogen  will  result.  This  has  been  proved  by  experiments 
at  several  of  the  experiment  stations.  For  example,  Wheeler 
found  that  when  a  nitrogenous  ration  was  fed  to  hens,  the 
resulting  manure  analyzed  :  nitrogen  .80  per  cent ;  phosphorus 
.41  per  cent ;  potash  .27  per  cent ;  and  that  when  a  car- 
bonaceous ration  (one  poor  in  protein)  was  fed,  the  manure 
showed :  nitrogen  .66  per  cent ;  phosphorus  .32  per  cent ; 
potassium  .21  per  cent. 

Losses  in  manure  due  to  improper  handling.  —  The  method 
of  handling  the  manure  has  more  to  do  with  its  composition 
than  any  other  factor.  Loss  can  occur  both  by  leaching  and 
by  fermentation.     Leaching,  which  means  the  dissolving  out 


72  Effective  Farming 

of  the  readily  soluble  plant-foods,  will  always  occur  in  the  case 
of  the  urine  and  also  in  the  case  of  the  solid  parts  when  the 
manure  is  exposed  to  rain  or  snow.  This  loss  can  be  lessened 
b}^  storing  the  manure  in  a  concrete  pit  or  a  yard  that  has  a 
water-tight  bottom  or  by  spreading  the  manure  on  the  field 
where  it  is  to  be  used  soon  after  it  is  voided.  By  this  latter 
method  the  plant-food  will  leach  out,  but  it  will  enter  the  soil 
where  it  can  be  used  by  the  plants. 

Fermentation,  or  the  decomposing  of  the  manure,  takes  place 
rapidly.  The  manure  as  it  leaves  the  animal  is  teeming  with 
bacteria  from  the  digestive  system  and  these  cause  it  to  decom- 
pose rapidly.  Two  classes  of  bacteria  are  at  work  —  one  known 
as  aerobic,  which  require  oxygen  for  their  development  and 
the  other  known  as  anaerobic,  which  work  where  air  is  either 
lacking  or  present  only  in  small  quantities.  When  manure 
is  fresh  it  is  likely  to  be  rather  loose  and,  if  it  dries,  it  soon  be- 
comes aerated.  Under  such  a  condition  the  aerobic  bacteria 
start  to  work,  changes  are  rapid,  and  much  heat  occurs.  This 
fermentation  is  undesirable,  as  it  destroys  the  organic  matter 
and  liberates  the  nitrogen.  The  action  of  these  bacteria  can 
be  lessened  by  compacting  the  manure  and  by  wetting  the  pile 
to  exclude  the  air.  The  losses  from  aerobic  fermentation  are 
greater  in  horse,  sheep,  and  poultry  manures  —  the  hot  ma- 
nures —  than  they  are  in  cattle  and  swine  manures. 

Anaerobic  bacteria  work  where  most  of  the  air  is  excluded 
from  the  pile.  The  changes  caused  in  the  manure  are  unfa- 
vorable to  the  loss  of  nitrogen  and  the  manure  rots  without 
much  loss  of  plant-food.  This  kind  of  rotted  manure  is  very 
valuable,  as  it  contains  readily  available  plant-food.  When 
a  vegetable-grower  places  manure  and  soil  in  layers  in  a  pile 
and  packs  and  wets  the  pile,  he  makes  conditions  favorable 
for  anaerobic  bacteria  to  work.  This  way  of  handling  manure 
is  known  as  composting  it  and  the  pile,  as  a  compost  pile. 
The  manure  rots,  but  still  contains  much  readily  available 
plant-food. 


Soil  Fertility 


73 


DONt  EXPOSE  MANURE 


NEW  YORK  EXR 

4.000  LBS.  HORSE  MANURE  WEATHERED  6  MONTHS 
LOST  2270  LBS.  IN  WEIGHT 

LBS. 
4.000 


APRIL  25IH 

1 

TO 

LOSS  IN  VALUE  65 9« 

SEPT.  22ND 

^^^BH^I^^ 

10.000  LBS.  COW  MANURE  WEATHERED  6  MONTHS 
LOST  4875  LBS.  IN  WEIGHT 


Schutt,  in  a  Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture  bulletin, 
has  reported  a  very  instructive  experiment  to  show  the  effect  of 
improper  handling  of 
manure.     A  quantity 

of  mixed   horse   and  TO   WEATHER 

cow  manure  was  di- 
vided into  two  lots. 
One  lot  was  exposed 
to  the  weather,  the 
other  was  protected 
in  a  bin  under  a  shed. 
The  percentage  of  loss 
in  both  was  deter- 
mined at  the  end  of 
six  months  and  also 
at  the  end  of  a  year. 
The  percentages  of 
loss  of  organic  matter, 
nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  are 
shown  in  Table  IL  The  figures  are  indeed  significant  and  teach 
a  valuable  lesson.  The  results  of  a  similar  experiment  are 
given  in  Fig.  24. 

TABLE   III 

Comparison  of  Protected  and  Exposed  Manure. 

OF  Loss 


APRIL  25IH 

TO 

SEPT.  22ND 


]  1 0.000 


LOSS  IN  VALUE  22^ 


LOSS  I 

HORSE  MANURE  60r.    WivT 

COW   MANURE  40:     197. 

CORNELL  BUL.  13 


®.»s 


DOrrt  EXPOSE   TO    WEATHER 
HAVE    A    MANURE    PIT 
TIGHT  FLOORS  IN    BARNS 
SPREAD  WHEN    FRESH 
PLENTY  OF  BEDDING         .     ^„„^ 
TO   ADSORB    LIQUIDS 


Fig.  24. 


—  A  lantern  slide  that  tells  a  story  of 
waste  on  American  farms. 


Percentages 


. 

Six  Months'  Period 

Twelve  Months' 
Period 

Exposed 
Manure 

Protected 
Manure 

Exposed 
Manure 

Protected 
Manure 

Loss  of  organic  matter     . 

Loss  of  nitrogen 

Loss  of  phosphoric  acid  . 
Loss  of  potash 

65 
30 
12 
29 

58 

19 

0 

3 

69 
40 
16 
36 

60 

23 

4 

3 

1  Schutt,  M.  A.    Barnyard   Manure,  Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Central  Experi- 
mental Farms.     Bulletin  31. 


74  Effective  Farming 

32.  Methods  of  handling  manure.  —  From  the  foregoing 
statements  it  is  plain  that  much  of  the  value  of  manure  can 
be  lost  by  careless  handling.  In  fact  it  has  been  estimated 
that  about  one-third  of  the  value  of  the  manure  of  the  United 
States  is  lost  annually  and  that  this  annual  loss  amounts  to 
$708,466,000.  Much  of  the  loss  can  be  prevented  by  the 
proper  handling  of  the  product.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  for 
the  farmer  to  adapt  the  method  to  his  particular  circumstances, 
keeping  in  mind  the  value  of  the  manure,  the  ease  with  which 


Fig.  25.  —  The  wrong  way  to  store  manure,  piling  it  by  the  roadside. 

organic  matter  and  plant-food  are  lost,  the  kind  of  farm  he 
maintains,  and  the  practicability  of  handling  the  manure  in  a 
particular  way.  Fig.  25  shows  the  wrong  way  to  store  manure. 
Hauling  manure  direct  to  the  field.  —  If  the  farming  can  be 
so  arranged,  it  is  advisable  to  haul  the  manure  from  the  stable 
daily  and  spread  it  on  the  field  at  once.  Many  farmers  have 
adopted  this  method  successfully.  They  try  always  to  have 
some  field  on  which  the  manure  can  be  spread,  and  to  save 
spaces  near  roads  for  muddy  days.  In  the  winter  in  cold  cli- 
mates the  manure  may  be  spread  on  the  snow  or  on  the  frozen 
ground  without  much  loss  of  fertility.     In  the  case  of  a  dairy 


Soil  Fertility 


75 


farm,  fresh  manure  is  so  very  wet  and  heavy  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  tight  wagon-box  in  which  to  carry  it.  A  manure- 
spreader  cannot  spread  the  wet,  heavy  mass  of  material.  A 
wagon-box  hned  with  metal  has  not  proved  very  satisfactory, 
because  the  acids  of  the  manure  soon  corrode  the  metal  and 
cause  the  box  to  leak. 

A  home-made  tank-like  box,  illustrated  in  Fig.  26,  has  been 
used  successfully.  The  sides  of  the  box  are  of  cypress  plank 
If  inches  thick.  The  middle  bottom  piece  is  a  3-inch  by  8- 
inch  oak  plank  and  the  piece  on  each  side  of  the  oak  plank  is 


Fig.  26.  —  Home-made  tank  wagon-box  for  hauling  fresh  manure  to  the  fields. 

cypress,  3  inches  thick,  tapered  to  If  inches  to  fit  the  side 
pieces.  The  ends  are  of  2-inch  plank  and  rabbeted.  The  box 
planks  are  beveled  together  to  conform  to  this  shape  and  are 
plowed  for  a  slip  tongue-and-lead  joint.  They  are  also  plowed 
at  each  end  to  receive  the  rabbet  of  the  end  pieces.  When 
put  together  the  box  is  drawn  tight  by  the  band-iron  and  cHp. 
Use  of  a  concrete  pit.  —  Many  farmers  make  use  of  a  concrete 
pit  as  a  place  in  which  to  store  manure.  Such  a  pit  should 
have  a  concrete  bottom  and  sides  in  order  to  prevent  excessive 
leaching  of  the  plant-food  from  the  pile.  The  manure  should  be 
spread  out  over  the  surface  of  the  pit  and  be  kept  moist ;  this 


76 


Effective  Farming 


helps  to  prevent  the  loss  of  nitrogen  by  fermentation.  A  roof 
and  sides  should  be  placed  over  the  pit  and  the  whole  screened 
to  keep  out  the  flies.  This  latter  is  a  sanitary  measure.  Flies 
breed  in  manure  and  the  numbers  in  a  season  can  be  greatly 
reduced  by  keeping  them  away  from  the  manure. 

Use  of  a  covered  barnyard.  —  The  building  of  a  roof  over  the 
barnyard  and  the  storing  of  the  manure  there  is  an  economical 
way  of  handling.  The  yard  should,  of  course,  have  an  imper- 
vious bottom  to  prevent  loss  from  leaching.  If  the  animals 
are  allowed  to  exercise  there,  they  will  tramp  the  manure  and 


Fig.  27. 


The  wrong  kind  of  barnyard.     Plant-food  and  humus  are  wasted 
in  such  yards  as  this. 


keep  it  moist,  which  is  an  advantage.  Frear  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Station  found  the  loss  in  covered  and  trampled  manure 
to  be  nitrogen,  5.7  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  8.5  per  cent,  and 
potash,  5.5  per  cent,  and  the  loss  in  covered  and  untrampled 
manure  to  be  nitrogen,  34.1  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  14.2  per 
cent,  and  potash  19.8  per  cent.  The  use  of  a  covered  barn- 
yard without  an  impervious  bottom  is  not  advised.  Even  if 
the  bottom  is  hard  earth,  about  one- third  of  the  fertility  is 
lost  by  leaching.  In  Fig.  27  is  shown  a  common  tj^pe  of  barn- 
yard, —  a  covered  barnyard  would  be  much  better. 

Allowing  manure  to  accumulate  in  stalls.  —  In  some  sections 
a  plan  in  use  is  to  allow  the  manure  to  accumulate  in  the  stalls, 


Soil  Fertility 


77 


fresh  bedding  being  added  from  time  to  time  to  keep  the  ani- 
mals clean.  Experiments  show  that,  as  far  as  fertility  and 
labor  are  concerned,  this  is  a  good  way  to  handle  manure. 
There  is  little  loss  of  nitrogen  as  long  as  the  animals  remain  in 
the  stalls;  the  wetting  of  the  manure  and  the  trampling  it 
receives  help  to  prevent  loss.  When  the  animals  are  removed 
there  is  considerable  loss  of  nitrogen,  because  the  drying  out 
of  the  material  admits  air  which  allows  bacterial  action  to  pro- 
ceed vigorously.  Consequently  manure  stored  in  this  way 
should  be  taken  to  the  fields  as  soon  as  the  animals  are  removed 
from  the  stalls  permanently. 

33.    Methods  of  applying  manure.  —  Some  farmers,   when 
applying  manure  to  the  fields,  place  it  in  small  heaps  to  be 


Fig.  28. 


A  manure-spreader  means  a  saving  of  labor  and  evenness  of 
distribution  of  the  manure. 


spread  later.  This  is  not  good  practice.  It  means  loss  by 
fermentation  and  the  soluble  portions  will  leach  out  and  pass 
into  the  soil  just  beneath  the  pile.  In  addition  there  is  a  loss 
of  labor ;  the  manure  must  be  handled  twice.  Manure  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  spread  directly  from  the  manure-spreader   or 


78  Effective  Farming 

wagon  in  an  even  coat  over  the  field.  In  this  way  it  is  evenly 
distributed  and  a  more  uniform  crop  growth  can  be  expected. 
Whenever  possible  a  manure-spreader  (Fig.  28)  should  be  used ; 
it  means  a  saving  of  labor  and  evenness  of  distribution  of  the 
manure.  There  are  machines  on  the  market  that  will  spread 
the  manure  in  narrow  piles  where  the  crop  rows  will  stand. 
These  are  especially  useful  for  crops  like  corn  and  vegetables. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  three  plant-foods  are  sometimes  lacking  in  soil  ? 

2.  How  can  missing  plant-food  be  supplied  ? 

3.  What  causes  soil  to  wear  out? 

4.  Why  should  rotation  of  crops  be  practiced  ? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  green-manure  crop  ? 

6.  Which  legume  in  your  region  is  most  used  for  green-manure  ? 

7.  State  the  benefits  of  farm  manure  to  the  soil. 

8.  Why  is  manure  from  a  young  animal  less  valuable  than  that 
from  an  old  animal  ? 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  hauling  manure  direct  to  the  field 
soon  after  it  is  voided? 

10.   What  are  the  advantages  of  a  concrete  pit  as  a  storage  place 
for  manure? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Crop  rotation.  —  Write  to  your  experiment  station  for  informa- 
tion concerning  the  best  rotations  for  the  chief  crops  in  your  section. 
On  a  plot  on  the  school  farm  or  on  the  farm  of  a  neighbor  follow  one  of 
these  rotations.  On  a  similar  plot  follow  a  one-crop  system.  Com- 
pare results. 

2.  Green-manure.  —  Visit  a  farm  where  a  green  crop  has  been 
plowed  under.  Observe  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  Watch  the 
crops  that  grow  on  this  piece  and  compare  them  with  crops  on  similar 
soil  where  green-manuring  is  not  practiced. 

3.  Farm  manure.  —  Ask  some  live-stock  farmer  of  your  commu- 
nity the  average  amount  of  manure  made  on  hig  farm  annually.  Refer- 
ring to  Table  II  and  considering  m'trogen  worth  twenty  cents  a  pound, 
and  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  each  six  cents  (normal  prices),  find 
the  money  loss  if  manure  is  exposed  for  a  year. 

REFERENCES 

Same  as  preceding  chapter. 


CHAPTER  V 

SOIL   FERTILITY,    Continued 

Commercial  Fertilizers 

Use  and  misuse  of  fertilizers. 
Nitrogenous  fertilizers. 

Nitrate  of  soda. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia. 

Dried  blood. 

Tankage. 

Fish-scrap. 

Hoof-and-horn  meals. 

Cottonseed  meal. 

Linseed  meal. 

Fertilizers  from  the  atmosphere. 
Phosphatic  fertilizers. 

Bone-meals. 

Phosphate  rocks. 

Phosphates  from  iron  furnaces. 
Potassic  fertilizers. 

Salts  from  German  mines. 

Wood-ashes. 

American  potash. 
Effects  of  the  different  plant-foods  on  vegetation. 

Effects  of  nitrogen. 

Effects  of  phosphorus. 

Effects  of  potassium. 
Purchasing  of  fertilizers. 
Fertilizer  laws. 
Fertilizer  equivalents. 
Home-mixed  fertilizers. 

Method  of  mixing  the  ingredients. 

Determining  the  quantities  of  ingredients  required. 
79 


80  Effective  Farming 

Lime  for  Soil  Improvement 
Uses  of  lime. 

Correcting  soil  acidity. 

Rendering  plant-food  available. 

Improving  the  physical  condition  of  soil. 

Lime  as  an  aid  for  legumes. 

Supplying  calcium  by  lime. 
Forms  of  lime. 
Quantity  of  lime  to  apply. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  studied  the  effect  on  the 
soil  of  stable  manures  and  green-crops.  In  this  chapter  we 
are  to  consider  the  fertilizing  materials  purchased  in  the  mar- 
ket as  commercial  manufactured  commodities.  It  is  not  pos- 
sible always  to  obtain  sufficient  home  manures,  and  often  the 
more  concentrated  materials  of  the  market  are  specially  needed. 
Lands  that  have  been  long  farmed  are  likely  to  profit  much 
by  the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers.  Some  kinds  of 
crops  also  make  special  response  to  them.  The  intensive  vege- 
table-grower would  hardly  know  how  to  farm  without  such 
materials ;  he  must  grow  many  of  his  crops  quickly  if  they  are 
to  be  of  good  quality  and  be  ready  for  an  early  market;  the 
readily  available  fertilizer  aids  him  to  secure  these  results. 
The  grain-farmer,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  longer  season  in 
which  to  grow  the  crop,  and  the  product  may  be  held  for  the 
market ;  he  may  therefore  use  less  fertilizer  and  let  the  plants 
get  the  additional  support  from  supplies  already  in  the  soil. 
When  very  heavy  yields  are  desired,  market  fertilizers  may  be 
needed.  Modern  farming  cannot  be  understood  without  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  function  and  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  The  use  of  lime  for  soil  improvement  is  also 
treated  in  this  chapter.  Lime  is  very  important  for  this  pur- 
pose and  in  many  sections  more  of  it  should  be  applied  to  the 
soil. 

COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS 

34.  Use  and  misuse  of  fertilizers.  —  The  materials  contain- 
ing nitrogen,  phosphorus,    and    potassium   that  are   used  as 


Soil  Fertility  81 

commercial  fertilizers  are  derived  from  mines,  from  by-products 
of  manufacture,  from  meat-packing  houses,  and  from  the  arti- 
ficial fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.  A  large  quantity  is 
used  annually.  The  census  reports  show  that  in  1909  approxi- 
mately $112,000,000  was  spent  by  the  farmers  of  the  United 
States  for  commercial  fertilizers  and  this  expenditure  is  increas- 
ing rapidly.  For  example,  in  1889,  the  sum  of  $28,000,000 
was  spent  and  $55,000,000  in  1899.  In  1909,  about  half  of 
the  commercial   fertilizer  purchased  was   used  in   the  South 


^^^ 

^MM 

IPWii 

^^^^1 

^^^^^^^^1 

^H|^H 

^^^^^^^: 

-^^^msa 

raffi^^^^^B 

^^^^^^^^^^^^k-*'-^- 

J^S^^^^^^^^^^^H 

"  .*•'  -^a*;*'  ^ir^,.^;''-' 

'^'  si;i'*!r:^'^-:J^.Ma»-  j:^?m-'r^!(Sil3KBSBKKttKKm 

No  fertilizer.  Complete  fertilizer. 

Fig.  29.  —  Effect  of  commercial  fertilizer  at  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

Atlantic  States;  about  half  of  the  remainder  was  sold  in  the 
Middle  Atlantic  and  the  New  England  States  and  only  about 
5  per  cent  was  used  by  farmers  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
western  lands,  since  they  have  been  farmed  a  comparatively 
short  time,  require  less  fertilizer  than  those  in  the  East  and 
South.  Effects  of  commercial  fertilizer  in  crop  growth  are 
shown  in  Fig.  29.  Several  miscellaneous  crops  were  planted 
on  two  plots,  one  with  no  fertilizer  and  one  with  complete 
fertilizer.     Notice  the  difference  in  plant  growth. 

Although  commercial  fertilizer  has  an  important  use  in  the 
agriculture  of  this  country,  it  is  possible  to  misuse  it.  It  is 
rather  expensive,  except  for  certain  special  crops,  and  usually 
does  not  add  humus  to  the  soil.     The  use  of  fertilizer  alone 


82  Effective  Farming 

will  not  maintain  the  productivity  of  the  soil ;  some  method 
must  be  followed  of  supplying  organic  matter  together  with 
the  fertilizer.  Barnyard  manure  and  green-manure  are  excel- 
lent for  this  purpose.  The  fertilizer  is  easy  to  haul  from  the 
station  and  the  labor  of  applying  it  is  small. 

35.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers.  —  Nitrogen  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive plant-food  to  purchase.  In  normal  times  it  costs 
about  twenty  cents  a  pound.  During  war  times  it,  in  common 
with  other  fertilizer  elements,  increased  much  in  price.  It  is 
supplied  from  mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  sources  and  also 
by  the  artificial  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen. 

Nitrate  of  soda.  —  The  principal  mineral  used  to  supply 
nitrogen  is  a  salt  known  as  nitrate  of  soda,  which  is  obtained 
in  a  crude  state  in  the  northern  part  of  Chile.  It  is  purified 
and  when  put  on  the  market  is  about  96  to  97  per  cent  pure 
and  contains  from  15  to  16  per  cent  nitrogen.  It  is  readily 
soluble  and,  for  this  reason,  the  nitrogen  is  quickly  available 
as  plant-food.  Because  of  the  solubility  of  the  salt,  the  nitro- 
gen is  easily  lost  in  drainage  water;  therefore,  the  fertilizer 
should  usually  be  applied  to  the  growing  crop  rather  than  to 
the  soil  before  the  crop  is  planted.  Small  and  frequent  appli- 
cations are  preferable.  For  example,  three  applications  of 
fifty  pounds  to  the  acre,  say  a  week  apart,  is  better  practice 
than  one  of  one  hundred  fifty  pounds.  Nitrate  of  soda  is 
used  to  force  the  growth  of  crops,  especially  vegetables,  and 
is  used  to  some  extent  in  mixed  fertilizers.  A  light  application 
spread  on  a  hay  field  when  the  plants  are  making  their  first 
growth  in  the  spring  has  been  found  profitable  in  some  instances. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia.  —  Another  mineral  substance  contain- 
ing available  nitrogen  is  sulfate  of  ammonia.  It  is  a  by-prod- 
uct of  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas,  is  about  95  per  cent  pure, 
and  contains  about  20  per  cent  nitrogen.  As  it  contains  a 
larger  percentage  of  nitrogen,  it  is  somewhat  more  economical 
to  handle  than  nitrate  of  soda.  It  does  not,  however,  become 
available  so  quickly,  but  it  is  less  readily  lost  by  percolation 


Soil  Fertility  83 

to  lower  levels  in  drainage  water.  When  used  in  large  quan- 
tities for  several  seasons,  it  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  soil 
acid;  consequently  it  should  not  be  used  on  soils  that  are 
already  acid.  Like  nitrate  of  soda,  it  should  usually  be  ap- 
plied to  the  growing  crop  rather  than  to  the  soil  before  it  is 
plowed. 

Dried  blood.  —  An  important  fertilizer  of  animal  origin  is 
dried  blood,  a  by-product  of  meat-packing  houses.  There 
are  two  grades  on  the  market ;  one  is  bright  red  in  color  and 
contains  about  13  to  15  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  the  other  is  almost 
black  and  contains  about  6  to  12  per  cent.  Dried  blood  decays 
rapidly  in  the  soil  and  the  nitrogen  becomes  available  by  the 
process  of  nitrification.  It  should  not  be  distributed  directly 
with  the  seeds,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  rot  them,  but  should 
be  drilled  into  the  soil  before  the  seeds  are  sown. 

Tankage.  —  The  fertilizer  known  as  tankage  is,  like  dried 
blood,  obtained  from  the  meat-packing  houses,  and  is  made  up  of 
animal  refuse  that  has  no  other  use.  Two  grades  are  offered 
for  sale,  the  concentrated,  which  contains  about  10  to  12  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  and  the  crushed,  which  contains  from  4  to  9 
per  cent.  Tankage  is  somewhat  slower-acting  than  dried 
blood  and  has  a  tendency  to  rot  the  seeds  if  applied  with  them. 

Fish-scrap.  —  The  refuse  from  fish  canneries  is  sold  for 
fertilizer.  Although  it  is  somewhat  variable  in  quality,  it 
usually  contains  about  8  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  It  also  con- 
tains about  6  per  cent  of  phosphorus. 

Hoof-and-horn  meals.  —  The  refuse  meals  from  factories 
manufacturing  combs  and  buttons  from  hoofs  and  horns  are 
used  to  some  extent  as  fertilizer.  They  contain  about  12  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  decom- 
posing very  slowly  in  the  soil.  For  this  reason  they  are  not 
good  for  immediate  crops ;  they  serve  only  to  build  up  the 
nitrogen-content  of  a  depleted  soil. 

Cottonseed  meal.  —  Cottonseed  meal  is  a  vegetable  product 
sometimes  used  as  fertilizer,  especially  in  the  South.     It  con- 


84  Effective  Farming 

tains  about  6.5  to  7  per  cent  nitrogen,  2.8  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid,  and  1.8  per  cent  potash.  Because  of  its  value  as  a  stock 
feed  and  its  high  price,  it  is  better  practice  usually  to  feed 
the  meal  to  live-stock  and  apply  the  resulting  manure  to  the 
soil  than  to  use  the  meal  as  a  direct  fertilizer. 

Linseed  meal.  —  A  product  of  flaxseed,  linseed  meal,  con- 
tains about  5  per  cent  nitrogen,  but  like  cottonseed  meal,  it  is 
so  high  in  price  and  so  valuable  as  stock  feed  that  it  is  not 
often  used  as  fertilizer. 

Fertilizers  from  the  atmosphere.  —  The  artificial  fixation  of 
atmospheric  nitrogen  has  been  accomplished  with  some  suc- 
cess. A  product  known  by  the  trade  name  cyanamid  is 
now  on  the  market.  It  contains  about  16  per  cent  nitrogen. 
The  nitrogen  is  not  readily  available,  but  becomes  so  in  the 
soil.  By  many  it  has  been  used  with  good  results.  In  Nor- 
way a  product  known  as  calcium  nitrate  is  made  by  fixing 
atmospheric  nitrogen ;  but  its  manufacture  is  not  conducted 
extensively  on  a  commercial  scale  in  the  United  States.  The 
product  contains  nitrogen  in  an  available  form  for  plants. 
The  electric  arc  is  used  in  converting  the  nitrogen  into  the 
calcium  nitrate. 

36.  Phosphatic  fertilizers.  —  In  normal  times  available  phos- 
phorus in  commercial  fertilizer  costs  from  four  to  five  cents  a 
pound.  The  chief  sources  are  animal  bones,  natural  deposits 
of  phosphate  rock,  and  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of 
steel  from  phosphatic  iron  ore. 

Bone-meals.  —  The  animal  bone-phosphates  are  raw  bone- 
meal  and  steamed  bone-meal.  Raw  bone-meal  consists  of 
untreated  bones  ground  to  a  powder.  Steamed  bone-meal 
is  made  of  bones  after  the  fat  has  been  removed  by  steam. 
The  steaming  makes  it  possible  to  grind  the  bones  finer  and 
the  absence  of  fat  causes  the  material  to  decay  rapidly,  both 
of  which  are  advantages.  Raw  bone-meal  contains  about  9 
per  cent  phosphorus  and  4  per  cent  nitrogen.  Steamed  bone- 
meal  contains  from  12  to  14  per  cent  phosphorus  and  from  1 


Soil  Fertility  85 

to  2  per  cent  nitrogen.  The  phosphorus  in  these  meals,  which 
is  in  the  form  of  a  compound  known  as  tricalcium  phosphate, 
is  not  soluble  in  water.  However,  it  becomes  slowly  soluble 
in  the  soil ;  consequently  the  meals  should  be  used  for  building 
up  a  soil  rather  than  for  immediate  crops. 

When  bone  is  treated  with  sulfuric  acid,  a  chemical  change 
occurs  and  a  part  of  the  tricalcium  phosphate  is  converted 
into  monocalcium  phosphate,  a  soluble  form;  a  part  reacts 
with  the  sulfuric  acid  and  forms  dicalcium  phosphate,  which  is 
soluble  in  weak  acids,  but  not  in  water;  the  remainder  is 
unchanged.  Therefore,  the  material  after  treatment  contains 
some  of  all  three  phosphates.  This  fertilizer  is  known  as  acid- 
ulated bone-meal,  dissolved  bone,  or  superphosphate.  It 
contains  on  the  average  about  12  per  cent  available  phosphoric 
acid  and  3  to  4  per  cent  insoluble  phosphoric  acid.  Available 
phosphoric  acid  is  considered  as  including  both  water-soluble 
and  citric-acid  soluble,  for  it  has  been  found  that  phosphate 
soluble  in  a  weak  solution  of  citric  acid  becomes  available  for 
plants  relatively  soon.  In  addition  to  the  phosphoric  acid, 
the  acidulated  meal  contains  about  2  per  cent  nitrogen. 

Phosphate  rocks.  —  The  natural  deposits  of  phosphate  rocks, 
or  mineral  phosphates,  are  widely  distributed.  The  most 
important  ones  in  the  United  States  are  in  Florida,  South 
Carolina,  and  Tennessee.  This  rock  contains  from  8  to  15 
per  cent  phosphorus.  One  method  of  preparing  the  rock  is 
to  grind  it  very  fine,  in  which  form  it  is  known  as  floats,  or 
raw  rock-phosphate.  The  phosphorus  in  the  rock  is  the  tri- 
calcium form  and  is  not  readily  available,  but  becomes  so 
slowly  in  the  soil.  The  fertilizer  is  useful,  therefore,  in  build- 
ing up  soil  deficient  in  phosphorus.  When  mineral  phosphates 
are  treated  with  sulfuric  acid,  monocalcium  and  dicalcium  phos- 
phates are  formed,  as  in  the  case  of  treated  bone.  The  treated 
product  is  called  acid-phosphate  and  is  the  kind  of  phosphatic 
fertilizer  most  widely  used.  It  contains  from  14  to  16  per 
cent  available  phosphoric  acid. 


86  Effective  Farming 

Phosphates  from  iron  furnaces.  —  In  the  manufacture  of 
steel  from  phosphatic  iron  ore,  a  slag  results  as  a  by-product 
which  contains  phosphorus.  This  material  wh^n  ground 
makes  a  valuable  fertilizer.  It  is  called  basic  slag,  also  Thomas 
slag.  It  contains  about  8  per  cent  phosphorus  in  the  tetra- 
calcium  form,  which  is  more  readily  available  than  the  tri- 
calcium  form  in  untreated  bone  or  raw  rock,  and  the  fertilizer, 
for  this  reason,  is  usually  applied  to  the  soil  as  powder  without 
treatment  with  sulfuric  acid.  The  slag  contains  lime  also  which 
is  of  value,  especially  if  applied  to  acid  soils.  (See  paragraph 
43.) 

37.  Potassic  fertilizers.  —  The  chief  potassic  fertilizers  are 
salts  taken  from  mines  in  Germany,  wood-ashes,  and  certain 
American  products.  The  potash  mines  in  Germany  are  located 
at  Stassfurt  and  the  industry  is  an  extensive  one.  During  the 
war  with  Germany  these  fertilizers  are  not  available  and  a 
relatively  small  quantity  of  potash  can  be  procured. 

Salts  from  German  mines.  —  The  chief  fertilizers  from  the 
mines  in  Germany  are  a  crude  salt  known  as  kainit  and  two 
refined  salts,  muriate  of  potash  and  sulfate  of  potash.  Kainit 
is  about  12  per  cent  potash ;  both  of  the  refined  salts  contain 
about  50  per  cent  potash.  All  of  these  fertilizers  are  soluble 
in  water  and  are  used  without  treatment. 

Wood-ashes.  —  If  they  can  be  secured  unleached,.  wood-ashes 
are  valuable  for  the  potash  and  phosphorus  they  contain. 
Formerly  they  were  more  plentiful  than  at  present.  Unleached 
ashes  contain  about  5  per  cent  of  potassium  and  5  per  cent  of 
phosphorus. 

American  potash.  —  With  no  potash  available  from  Germany, 
it  became  necessary  to  develop  the  potash  resources  of  this 
country.  As  a  result  of  investigations  by  the  Government  and 
the  fertilizer  companies,  several  sources  have  been  developed 
and  much  of  the  product  placed  on  the  market.  Among  the 
materials  used  are  ground  kelp,  charred  kelp.  Great  Salt  Lake 
potash,  and  Searles  Lake  potash,  which  furnish  the  plant-food 


Soil  Fertility  87 

in  the  muriate  form ;  alimite,  which  furnishes  it  in  the  sulfate 
form ;  and  Nebraska  potash,  beet-root  molasses  potash,  manure 
ash,  cement  dust,  and  blast  furnace  dust,  which  contain  the 
potash  as  a  mixture  of  carbonate  and  sulfate.  Most  of  the 
product  is  in  an  available  form  and  in  the  various  materials 
ranges  from  about  6  to  45  per  cent  pure. 

38.  Effects  of  the  different  plant-foods  on  vegetation.  — 
The  effects  of  foods  on  the  resulting  vegetation  has  been  ex- 
haustively studied  by  scientists  and  some  very  significant 
facts  have  been  established.  Some  of  the  most  important  of 
these  are  given  in  the  ensuing  paragraphs. 

Effects  of  nitrogen.  —  Vegetative  growth  of  that  part  of  the 
plant  above  ground  is  encouraged  by  nitrogen.  It  also  imparts 
a  deep  green  to  the  leaves.  Absence  of  this  color  often  indi- 
cates a  lack  of  nitrogen.  In  the  cereals  nitrogen  has  the  tendency 
to  increase  the  plumpness  of  grains.  With  all  plants  nitrogen 
is  a  regulator  that  governs  to  a  certain  extent  the  utilization 
of  phosphorus  and  potassium.  It  also  produces  succulence 
in  crops.  This  is  especially  desired  in  many  vegetables,  and, 
therefore,  growers  supply  the  soil  plentifully  with  nitrogen, 
especially  for  such  crops  as  lettuce,  radishes,  and  cabbage. 
In  the  case  of  many  general  farm  crops,  however,  an  excessive 
use  should  be  discouraged.  In  this  connection  it  must  be 
remembered  that  nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  plant-food 
and  that,  unless  the  crop  actually  requires  it,  an  excess  is  an 
extravagance.  Moreover,  too  much  nitrogen  has  some  unfavor- 
able effects  on  crops.  It  delays  maturity  by  encouraging 
growth;  it  weakens  the  stalks  of  cereals  and  hay  crops  and 
causes  the  plants  to  lodge,  or  bend  over;  it  may  lower  the 
quality  of  certain  grains  and  fruits,  as  is  the  case  with  barley 
and  peaches;  and  it  may  decrease  the  resistance  of  plants  to 
disease.     However,  nitrogen  should  be  used  when  needed. 

Effects  of  phosphorus.  —  Phosphorus  hastens  the  maturity 
of  plants,  increases  root  development,  decreases  the  ratio  of 
straw  to  grain  by  hastening  the  filling  out  of  the  latter  and  pro- 


88  Effective  Farming 

moting  maturity  of  the  plant,  strengthens  the  straw,  thereby 
decreasing  the  tendency  to  lodge,  improves  the  quality  of  the 
seeds  and  fruit,  and  increases  the  resistance  to  disease.  An 
excess  does  not  seem  to  have  any  bad  effect  on  the  crop.  Phos- 
phorus should  be  plentifully  supplied  and  should  balance  the 
nitrogen  supply.  As  the  lack  of  it  is  not  readily  observed,  as 
in  the  case  with  nitrogen,  its  absence  from  soils  is  not  often 
known  to  the  farmer.  The  experiment  stations,  especially 
those  that  have  made  chemical  analyses  of  the  soil  types  in 
their  states,  usually  give  reliable  information  about  the  need 
of  phosphorus  in  soils  of  any  community. 

Effects  of  potassium.  —  It  has  been  found  that  a  sufficient 
supply  of  potassium  gives  plump,  heavy  kernels  and  imparts 
vigor  to  the  plants ;  also,  it  delays  maturity  and  increases  the 
resistance  of  the  plants  to  disease.  In  general  it  seems  to  have 
a  balancing  effect  on  nitrogen  and  phosphorus.  Excessive 
quantities  in  soil  have  no  bad  effects.  Experiment  stations 
can  give  information  as  to  whether  it  is  likely  to  be  lacking  in 
any  particular  soil  type  of  the  state. 

39.  Purchasing  of  fertilizers.  —  Commercial  fertilizers  can 
be  purchased  either  mixed  or  unmixed.  The  mixed  goods  are 
put  together  at  factories  and  are  given  a  name,  or  brand.  These 
brands  usually  contain  two  of  the  fertilizer  elements  and  often 
three.  The  fertilizers  are  made  up  of  the  ingredients  previously 
described,  the  quantity  of  each  ingredient  used  being  deter- 
mined by  the  percentage  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potas- 
sium desired  in  the  fertilizer.  The  trade  in  mixed  fertilizers 
amounts  to  millions  of  dollars  annually.  Although  farmers 
can  procure  the  ingredients  and  mix  their  own  fertilizer,  usually 
for  less  money,  the  ease  with  which  mixed  goods  are  secured 
and  the  attitude  of  fertilizer  dealers  against  this  home-mixing 
will  cause  the  mixed  product  to  be  most  widely  used. 

40.  Fertilizer  laws.  —  Laws  for  controlling  the  sale  of  fer- 
tilizers are  in  force  in  most  states.  The  need  of  these  laws  is 
obvious,  when  one  considers  the  many  opportunities  for  fraud 


Soil  Fertility  89 

as  to  the  availability  of  the  materials  used  and  the  percentages 
of  plant-foods  contained.  The  laws  of  the  several  states  differ 
in  some  respects,  but  in  general  the  manufacturers  are  required 
to  pay  a  state  tax  for  each  brand  and  to  print  on  the  bags  con- 
taining the  mixture  (1)  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  in  the  bags, 
(2)  the  name,  brand,  or  trade  mark,  (3)  the  name  and  address 
of  the  manufacturer,  (4)  the  guaranteed  chemical  composition 
of  the  fertilizer. 

The  quantities  of  plant-food  ingredients  in  a  fertilizer  are 
expressed  in  percentages  and  are  figured  on  a  ton  basis  of 
2000  pounds.  Thus  if  a  fertilizer  is  said  to  contain  3  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  6  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  per  cent 
of  potash,  the  quantities  in  pounds  of  the  ingredients  are : 

Nitrogen 2000  (ton  basis)  X  .03  =    60 

Phosphoric  acid 2000  (ton  basis)  X  .06  =  120 

Potash 2000  (ton  basis)  X  .10  =  200 

The  composition  of  fertilizers  is  often  designated  by  giving 
the  percentages  only,  the  names  of  the  ingredients  being  omitted. 
Thus  the  fertilizer  just  considered  is  usually  spoken  of  as  a 
3-6-10  fertilizer.  As  a  rule  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  is  given 
first,  that  of  the  phosphoric  acid  second,  and  that  of  potash 
last,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  country  the  order  of  the  first 
two  is  reversed,  making  the  above  a  6-3-10  fertilizer. 

Laws  in  the  different  states  vary  as  to  what  shall  be  guar- 
anteed by  an  analysis.  Some  states  require  a  statement  as 
to  the  percentage  of  both  nitrogen  and  ammonia,  others  require 
that  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  only  shall  be  given.  Some 
require  the  percentage  of  the  soluble,  reverted,  and  total  phos- 
phoric acid;  others  only  that  of  the  soluble  and  the  reverted. 
In  the  case  of  potash  some  states  require  only  the  percentage 
of  soluble ;  others,  that  the  total  be  given.  The  best  kind  of 
a  guarantee  is  one  that  gives  not  only  the  percentage  of  the 
ingredients,  but  also  their  availability.  Some  states  have 
this  requirement.     Formerly  it  was  the  custom  among  ferti- 


90 


Effective  Farming 


lizer  manufacturers  to  complicate  the  statements  of  the  analyses 
more  than  at  present.  Such  complicated  statements  are  very- 
misleading  and  confusing. 

Most  states  provide  for  the  analysis  of  the  different  brands 
licensed  for  sale  in  the  state.  Officers  collect  samples  from 
stock  in  the  hands  of  the  dealers  and  farmers  and  if  these  samples 
are  found  on  analysis  to  contain  less  than  the  percentages 
of  the  plant-foods  guaranteed,  the  manufacturers  are  subject 
to  arrest.  Also,  the  results  are  published,  which  not  only 
helps  to  prevent  fraud,  but  protects  the  honest  manufacturer. 

41.  Fertilizer  equivalents.  —  In  interpreting  the  analysis 
of  fertilizers,  Table  III  will  be  helpful. 

TABLE   III 
Fertilizer  Equivalents 


To  Convert  Guar- 

antee OF 

Into  Terms  of 

Multiply  by 

Ammonia 

Nitrogen 

.823 

Nitrogen 

Ammonia 

1.215 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Nitrogen 

.165 

Nitrogen 

Nitrate  of  soda 

6.064 

Phosphoric  acid 

Phosphorus 

.436 

Phosphorus 

Phosphoric  acid 

2.290 

Phosphoric  acid 

Bone  phosphate 

2.183 

Bone  phosphate 

Phosphoric  acid 

.458 

Potash 

Potassium 

.83 

Potassium 

Potash 

1.024 

Sulfate  of  potash 

Potash 

.541 

Potash 

Sulfate  of  potash 

1.850 

Muriate  of  potash 

Potash 

.632 

Potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

1.583 

42.  Home-mixed  fertilizers.  —  In  many  cases,  farmers  buy 
the  separate  ingredients  and  mix  their  fertilizers  at  home. 
This  practice  is  discouraged  by  the  manufacturers  who  assert 
that  factory-made  goods  are  more  finely  ground  than  home- 


Soil  Fertility  91 

mixed  and,  for  this  reason,  are  more  uniform  and  in  a  better 
physical  condition.  The  argument  is  fairly  sound;  neverthe- 
less, experience  shows  that  good  results  have  been  obtained 
from  home-mixed  goods.  By  screening  and  mixing  the  mate- 
rials thoroughly,  a  well-mixed  fertilizer  of  good  physical  condi- 
tion can  be  made  at  home.  Experiments  have  shown  that,  as 
a  rule,  home-mixing  is  cheaper  than  buying  factory-mixed 
goods,  provided  the  ingredients  can  be  purchased  in  large 
enough  quantities  to  warrant  car-load  shipments.  The  freight 
rates  are  so  high  on  small-lot  shipments  that  the  home-mixing 
of  small  quantities  usually  does  not  pay.  Cooperation  among 
farmers  is  here  an  advantage ;  the  organizations  can  buy  in 
large  lots  and  distribute  small  quantities  to  the  individual 
members,  thus  taking  advantage  of  wholesale  prices  and  large 
freight  shipments.  When  deciding  whether  it  will  pay  to 
mix  fertilizers  at  home,  the  farmer  or  organization  should  secure 
quotations  from  dealers  for  both  mixed  goods  of  a  given  analysis 
and  the  ingredients  that  will  make  this  fertilizer  and  compare 
prices.  Usually  it  is  well  to  figure  a  dollar  a  ton  as  the  cost  of 
home-mixing,  although  quantities  have  been  mixed  for  fifty 
cents  a  ton. 

Method  of  mixing  the  ingredients.  —  The  operation  of  mixing 
is  not  difficult.  A  smooth  solid  floor,  shovels,  a  broom,  a  sand- 
screen,  and  a  stamper  or  a  maul  to  crush  out  any  lumps  that 
may  be  present  are  all  the  tools  needed.  A  convenient  stamper 
can  be  made  by  fitting  a  handle  into  the  top  of  a  wooden  block 
about  six  inches  by  six  inches  by  eighteen  inches.  Any  lumpy 
materials  should  be  crushed  and  the  different  ingredients 
should  be  placed  in  layers  in  a  long  pile.  The  pile  is  usually 
mixed  by  two  shovelers  working  opposite  each  other  who  start 
at  one  end  and  turn  the  mass,  a  shovelful  at  a  time,  until  the 
other  end  has  been  reached.  To  insure  good  mixing,  the  pile 
should  be  turned  over  at  least  three  times.  After  each  mixing, 
the  scattered  parts  at  the  edges  should  be  swept  into  the  pile 
and,  as  soon  as  the  mass  has  been  well  mixed,  it  should  be 


92  Effective  Farming 

shoveled  through  the  sand-screen  and  any  lumps  that  will 
not  pass  through  the  wire  mesh  should  be  broken  and  mixed 
with  the  pile.  The  mixed  fertilizer  should  be  placed  in  bags 
to  facilitate  storing  and  hauhng  to  the  fields. 

Determining  the  quantities  of  ingredients  required.  —  The 
determination  of  the  quantities  of  different  ingredients  neces- 
sary to  make  fertilizer  of  a  given  analysis  is  by  simple  arith- 
metic. Suppose,  for  example,  it  is  desired  to  mix  a  2-8-10 
fertilizer,  the  nitrogen  to  come  half  from  nitrate  of  soda  and 
half  from  dried  blood,  the  phosphoric  acid  from  acid-phosphate, 
and  the  potash  from  sulfate  of  potash.  Also,  suppose  the 
nitrate  of  soda  contains  15  per  cent  nitrogen,  the  dried  blood 
6  per  cent,  the  acid-phosphate  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid, 
the  sulfate  of  potash  50  per  cent  potash.  To  find  the  number 
of  pounds  proceed  as  in  paragraph  40. 

2000  lb.  (one  ton)  X  .02=  40  lb.  nitrogen 

2000  lb.  (one  ton)  X  .08=160  lb.  phosphoric  acid 

2000  lb.  (one  ton)  X  .10  =  200  lb.  potash 

The  nitrate  of  soda  being  15  per  cent  nitrogen  contains  15 
pounds  of  nitrogen  to  the  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda ;  there- 
fore to  have  20  pounds  of  nitrogen  (half  the  quantity  required), 
it  will  require  as  many  hundredweight  of  nitrate  of  soda  as 
20  is  times  15,  or  20  divided  by  15,  which  is  1^.  This  equals 
133^  pounds,  which  for  practical  purposes  may  be  taken  as 
134  pounds.  As  the  dried  blood  is  6  per  cent  nitrogen  it  will 
contain  6  pounds  to  the  100 ;  therefore,  to  have  20  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  it  will  require  as  many  hundredweight  of  dried  blood 
as  20  is  times  6,  or  20  divided  by  6,  or  3^,  which  equals  333| 
pounds,  or  approximately  334  pounds.  The  acid-phosphate, 
as  it  is  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  contains  16  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  to  the  100;  consequently  to  get  160  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  requires  as  many  hundredweight  as  160  is 
times  16,  or  10,  which  equals  1000  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid. 
The  sulfate  of  potash,  as  it  is  50  per  cent  potash,  contains  50 


Soil  Fertility  93 

pounds  of  potash  to  the  100;  thus  to  get  200  pounds  will 
require  double  the  quantity,  or  400  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash. 
The  pounds  of  the  ingredients  are  as  follows : 

Nitrateof  soda  (15%)    .     .     .     .     .     .     .  134  1b. 

Dried  blood  (6%) 334  1b. 

Acid-phosphate  (16%)        1000  1b. 

Sulfateof  potash  (50%) 400  1b. 

Total 1868  1b. 

This  is  132  pounds  short  of  a  ton.  Any  material  such  as 
sand  or  ashes  may  be  used  as  filler  to  make  up  the  ton  weight. 
The  same  quantity  of  plant-food  will,  however,  be  placed  on 
the  soil  if  only  the  1868  pounds  of  material  are  used. 


LIME    FOR    SOIL    IMPROVEMENT 

43.  Uses  of  lime.  —  Lime  is  a  soil  amendment  and  is  useful 
in  many  ways.  It  corrects  the  acidity  of  soils,  is  of  aid  in 
rendering  plant-food  available,  improves  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  the  soil,  often  makes  it  possible  to  grow  some  varieties 
of  legumes  where  they  would  not  otherwise  grow,  and  supplies 
the  plant-food  element,  calcium. 

Correcting  soil  acidity.  —  The  principal  reason  for  using  lime 
is  to  correct  the  acidity,  or  sourness,  of  the  soil.  Lime  is  a 
base  and  like  all  bases  reacts  chemically  with  acids  to  form 
neutral  salts.  Any  acid  soil  shows  the  good  effects  of  appli- 
cations of  lime. 

The  usual  test  for  soil  acidity  is  made  by  means  of  blue  lit- 
mus paper,  a  preparation  that  can  be  purchased  in  strips  ready 
for  use  at  drug  stores.  Blue  litmus  turns  red  when  exposed 
to  an  acid ;  consequently  when  placed  in  an  acid  soil  the  paper 
becomes  red.  In  making  the  test,  a  time  should  be  chosen 
when  the  soil  is  moist  enough  to  work  into  a  compact  ball. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  soil  should  be  wet  enough  to  be 
muddy.  Make  four  balls  of  earth,  break  each  of  them  into 
two  pieces,  lay  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  on  the  broken 


94  Effective  Farming 

surface  of  a  part  of  each  one,  and  replace  the  parts  of  the  ball. 
Leave  the  paper  in  contact  with  the  soilin  the  first  ball  for 
five  minutes,  the  second  for  ten  minutes,  the  third  for  thirty 
minutes,  and  the  fourth  for  an  hour.  If  the  papers  on 
examination  have  turned  red,  the  soil  is  acid  and  in  need  of 
lime.  Differences  in  the  color  of  the  papers  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  extent  of  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Rendering  plant-food  available.  —  Compounds  of  phosphorus 
in  the  soil  are  rendered  available  as  plant-food  by  the  action 
of  lime.  When  soluble  salts  of  phosphorus  are  applied  to  the 
soil,  they  react  chemically  and  form  either  dicalcium  phosphate 
or  some  such  compound  as  phosphate  of  iron  or  phosphate  of 
aluminum.  In  the  soils  in  which  lime  is  plentiful,  the  first- 
named  compound  is  formed,  and  in  soils  lacking  lime  the  other 
compounds  result.  The  dicalcium  phosphate  is  more  readily 
soluble  in  the  soil- water  than  the  others ;  consequently  in  a 
soil  not  in  need  of  Ume,  the  phosphorus  is  more  readily  avail- 
able than  in  one  deficient  in  lime. 

Lime  has  a  somewhat  similar  action  on  potash ;  certain 
reactions  take  place  in  soils  in  which  lime  is  abundant  and  set 
potassium  free  from  compounds  that  remain  unavailable  as 
plant-food  in  a  soil  deficient  in  lime. 

Nitrification  is  not  active  in  sour  soils,  but  it  is  so  in  neutral 
soils.  Thus  when  the  acidity  is  reduced  by  an  appUcation  of 
lime,  nitrification  can  take  place,  which  means  more  available 
nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

Improving  the  physical  condition  of  soil.  —  Clay  soils  espe- 
cially are  improved.  They  become  more  crumbly  and  can  be 
made  into  good  tilth  more  readily.  Such  soils  often  are  hard 
and  full  of  cracks,  causing  loss  of  moisture,  but  when  they  are 
plentifully  supplied  with  lime,  these  conditions  are  not  so  likely 
to  arise. 

Lime  as  an  aid  for  legumes.  —  Alfalfa  and  red  clover  do  not 
make  a  good  growth  on  sour  soils.  In  fact  it  is  usually  impos- 
sible to  secure  a  stand  if  the  soil  is  very  acid.     Many  soils  that 


Soil  Fertility  95 

formerly  grew  good  crops  of  red  clover  are  now  not  producing 
this  valuable  legume  and  very  often  an  application  of  lime  is 
all  that  is  required  to  renew  this  stand.  Often  failures  in  grow- 
ing alfalfa  are  due  to  the  soils  not  being  sufficiently  limed. 
Field  peas,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  vetches,  white  clover,  alsike 
clover,  and  bur  clover  will  grow  on  soils  low  or  even  slightly 
deficient  in  lime ;  nevertheless  they  will  respond  favorably 
to  an  application  of  lime  and  make  better  growths.  Florida 
beggarweed  and  velvet  beans  seem  to  prefer  an  acid  soil  and 
lime  is  not  required  on  soils  to  be  planted  to  these  crops. 

Supplying  calcium  by  lime.  —  Calcium  as  a  plant-food  is 
found  in  sufficient  quantities  in  most  soils.  However,  analyses 
have  been  made  of  some  soils  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern 
States  that  show  a  deficiency  of  it.  In  soils  of  this  kind,  the 
marked  response  on  an  application  of  lime  may  be  due  partly 
to  the  favorable  effect  of  the  added  supply  of  the  plant-food. 

44.  Forms  of  lime.  —  Three  forms  of  lime  are  in  use  by 
farmers  for  soil  improvement.  They  are  ground  limestone, 
caustic  lime,  and  hydrated  lime.  Limestone  (CaCOs),  or  car- 
bonate of  lime,  is  found  as  natural  deposits  in  many  parts 
of  the  country.  For  soil  improvement  it  is  ground  to  a  powder 
and  applied  to  the  land  without  further  treatment.  Marl, 
chalk,  and  oyster  shells  contain  carbonate  of  lime  and  can,  if 
ground,  be  used  as  ground  limestone.  Caustic  lime  (CaO), 
also  known  as  burnt  lime  and  as  quick-lime,  is  made  by  heating 
limestone  until  carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  is  given  off.  It  is  called 
caustic  lime  because  it  decomposes  organic  substances.  Thus 
it  burns  humus  out  of  the  soil.  When  moistened  it  unites 
with  water  and  forms  hydrated  lime  (Ca(0H)2).  Either  caus- 
tic lime  or  hydrated  lime  when  placed  in  soil  soon  reverts 
to  the  carbonate  form.  When  one  hundred  pounds  of  pure 
limestone  is  burned,  fifty-six  pounds  of  quick-lime  is  formed 
and  the  fifty-six  pounds  of  quick-lime  when  treated  with  water 
will  make  seventy-four  pounds  of  hydrated  lime.  Thus,  as 
far  as  correcting  soil  acidity  is  concerned,  one  hundred  pounds 


96  Effective  Farming 

of  ground  limestone,  fifty-six  pounds  of  quick-lime,  and  seventy- 
four  pounds  of  hydrated  lime  have  the  same  value. 

When  choosing  lime  for  use  on  soil,  the  farmer  must  keep  in 
mind  the  fact  that  caustic  lime  burns  out  the  soil  humus.  To 
keep  up  the  supply  of  humus  in  soil  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  maintaining  soil  fertility  and,  except  in  the  case 
of  muck  or  peat  soils,  farmers  cannot  often  afford  to  lose  this 
valuable  product.  The  results  of  long-continued  field  tests 
at  several  experiment  stations  show  that  ground  limestone 
gives  the  best  results.  At  the  Pennsylvania  Station,  when 
caustic  lime  was  used,  less  yields  were  secured  and  larger  quan- 
tities of  organic  matter  were  destroyed  than  when  ground 
limestone  was  used.  And  a  very  significant  fact  about  the 
results  at  this  station  is  that  for  every  ton  of  caustic  lime  ap- 
plied to  the  soil,  the  equivalent  of  four  and  one-half  tons  of  farm 
manure  was  destroyed.  The  nitrogen  in  the  manure  would 
cost  about  $7.00  if  purchased  in  commercial  fertilizer.  It 
should  be  stated  in  this  connection  that  authorities  do  not 
agree  about  the  relative  values  of  these  two  kinds  of  lime. 
Some  advocate  the  use  of  caustic  lime,  stating  that  it  is  quicker- 
acting,  which  is  the  case,  and,  further,  since  about  half  the 
quantity  is  required,  the  saving  in  freight  rates  of  such  a  bulky 
product  is  a  factor  to  be  considered.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  about  $7.00  of  nitrogen  is  destroyed  for  each  ton  of 
caustic  lime  used  and  that  this  money  will  pay  many  freight  bills. 

Whether  to  use  hydrated  lime  or  some  other  form  will  de- 
pend largely  on  the  price  of  the  product  and  the  amount  of 
money  that  can  be  saved  in  freight  charges.  Less  hydrated 
lime  is  used  for  soil  improvement  than  the  other  forms. 

45.  Quantity  of  lime  to  apply.  —  The  usual  first  applica- 
tion of  ground  limestone  is  four  tons  an  acre  followed  by  two 
tons  every  four  years.  In  very  sour  soils  these  amounts  may 
well  be  increased.  There  is  no  danger  of  applying  too  large  a 
quantity.  Caustic  lime  is  usually  applied  at  the  rate  of  1000 
pounds  to  the  acre  and  hydrated  at  the  rate  of  1500  pounds. 


Soil  Fertility  97 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  green-manure  or  farm  manure  or  both  be  used  with 
commercial  fertilizer? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are 
present  in  a  3-6-4  fertilizer  ?  How  many  pounds  of  ammonia,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium? 

3.  State  the  five  benefits  of  lime  for  soil  improvement. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  in  using  ground  limestone  in  place  of 
caustic  lime? 

5.  How  can  a  soil  be  tested  to  learn  whether  or  not  it  requires  lime  ? 

6.  Why  should  soil  to  be  planted  to  alfalfa  or  red  clover  be  well 
limed? 

7.  For  what  kind  of  crops  is  commercial  fertilizer  especially  use- 
ful? 

8.  What  is  the  appearance  of  growing  plants  that  are  in  need  of 
nitrogen? 

9.  Why  should  dried  blood  and  tankage  be  mixed  with  the  soil 
in  the  furrow  before  the  seeds  are  planted  ? 

10.    When   should  raw  rock-phosphate  be  used  in  preference    to 
treated  phosphates? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Fertilizer  laws.  —  Write  to  your  experiment  station  for  copies 
of  the  fertilizer  laws  of  your  state.     Study  these  carefully. 

2.  Home-mixing  of  fertilizer.  —  Find  the  quantities  of  material 
required  to  mix  a  2-8-6  fertilizer  from  15  per  cent  nitrate  of  soda,  14 
per  cent  acid-phosphate,  and  50  per  cent  sulfate  of  potash.  Make  up 
other  similar  problems.  Get  a  fertilizer  formula  from  a  bag  of  mixed 
fertilizer  and  plan  how  you  could  mix  one  having  the  same  formula. 

3.  Testing  soils  for  acidity.  —  Following  directions  given  in  the 
chapter,  test  the  soil  in  several  fields  near  the  school-house  for  acidity. 


REFERENCES 

Same  as  Chapter  III. 


CHAPTER  VI 

INDIAN  CORN,   OR  MAIZE 

Corn-producing  localities. 
Types  of  corn. 

Dent,  flint,  pop,  sweet,  soft,  pod. 
Uses  of  corn. 

Selection  of  variety  of  corn  for  planting. 
Selection  and  care  of  seed  corn. 

Selecting  ears  from  the  field. 

Kind  of  stalk  from  which  to  select  earSo 

Kind  of  seed  ear  to  select. 

Caring  for  the  seed  ears. 
Testing  seed  corn  for  germination. 

Sawdust-box  tester. 

Rag-doll  tester. 
Soils  and  climate  for  corn. 
Enriching  soils  for  corn. 
Preparation  of  land  for  corn.     . 
Planting  the  seed. 

Depth  of  planting. 

Methods  of  planting. 

Rate  of  planting. 

Implements  for  planting. 

Testing  the  planter. 
Cultivating  the  fields. 
Harvesting  the  crop. 
Pests  of  corn. 

Corn  root-worms. 

Corn  root-louse. 

Wire-worm. 

Cutworms. 

White-grub. 

Corn  ear-worm. 

Grain-weevil. 

Migratory  insects  —  chinch-bug,  army-worm. 

Corn-smut. 

Ear-rots. 

98 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  99 

When  Columbus  discovered  America  he  found  Indian  corn 
growing  here.  This  corn  was  not  known  to  European  peoples 
before  that  time.  The  corn  mentioned  in  the  Bible  was  wheat 
or  some  of  the  other  small  grains.  Indian  corn  has  proved  to 
be  a  very  valuable  accession  to  the  crops  of  the  world.  The 
United  States  is  the  greatest  producer.  The  yield  in  this 
country  in  1917,  a  record  year,  was  3,191,000,000  bushels, 
which  was  about  half  the  yield  of  all  the  grains  we  grew.  In 
other  words,  the  United  States  grew  that  year  about  6,000,- 
000,000  bushels  of  grain,  half  of  which  was  corn. 

The  corn  plant  produces  abundant  feed  for  live-stock  and  a 
verj^  large  quantity  of  human  food  in  the  form  of  hominy,  corn- 
meal,  corn-sirup,  and  other  products.  It  is  the  principal 
crop  for  filling  silos  in  the  regions  of  winter  dairying.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country  much  corn  is  eaten  as  human  food.  The 
South  has  always  been  a  large  consumer  of  corn  in  this  way. 
Hominy  will  be  found  on  the  breakfast  tables  of  most  of  the 
families  every  morning,  and  corn-bread  in  some  form  is  a  steady 
article  of  diet.  The  consumption  of  corn  products  by  hu- 
man beings  is  extending  because  of  the  Great  War.  Maize 
is  extensively  grown  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States. 
The  region  extending  from  Nebraska  to  Ohio  is  specially  ad- 
vantageous for  the  crop,  and  it  is  known  as  the  corn-belt. 
Maize  may  be  considered  to  be  the  characteristic  North  Ameri- 
can crop. 

46.  Corn-producing  localities.  —  Indian  corn  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  all  crops.  The  world  produces  annually 
from  3 1  to  4  billion  bushels.  Of  this  vast  quantity  North 
America  grows  about  78  per  cent,  Europe  15  per  cent.  South 
America  4  per  cent,  Africa  2  per  cent,  and  Austraha  less  than 
1  per  cent.  The  United  States  produces  about  73  per  cent 
of  the  corn  of  the  world,  Austria-Hungary  5 J  per  cent,  Mexico 
and  Argentina  each  about  4  per  cent,  Italy  about  2^  per  cent, 
Rumania  about  2  per  cent,  and  Egypt  and  European  Russia 
each  about  1^  per  cent.     In  the  United  States  about  three- 


100 


Effective  Farming 


fifths  of  the  total  corn  crop  is  grown  in  the  seven  so-called  corn- 
belt  states :  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  In- 
diana, and  Ohio.  Many  of  the  best  yields  of  corn,  however, 
are  secured  in  Eastern  and  Southern  States  and  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  a  number  of  record  yields  have  been  made  by  mem- 
bers of  Boys'  Corn  Clubs.  Corn  has  a  wide 
range  of  growth  and  varieties  are  found  for 
each  state. 

47.  Types  of  corn.  —  Six  types,  or  classes,  of 
corn  are  grown.  These  are  dent,  flint,  pop, 
sweet,  pod,  and  soft  corn.  The  last  two,  how- 
ever, are  of  little  importance  commercially. 

Dent  corn.  —  The  type  of  corn  known  as 
dent  is  the  field  corn  commonly  grown  in  the 
United  States.  In  a  kernel  of  corn,  there 
are  two  kinds  of  endosperm,  hard,  or  horny, 
and  soft,  or  white.  In  dent  corn  the  hard 
endosperm  is  arranged  along  the  sides,  and 
the  soft  endosperm  surrounds  the  germ  and 
extends  to  the  crown,  or  upper  portion,  of  the 
kernel.  The  soft  endosperm  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  water,  which  causes  it  to  shrink 
more  rapidly  and  when  the  kernel  matures  a 
dent  is  formed  in  the  crown.  In  Fig.  30  the 
dented  character  of  the  kernels  can  be  seen. 
Fig.  30.  —  Dent  The  ears  of  dent  corn  average  from  eight  to 
nine  inches  in  length,  from  six  and  one-half  to 
seven  inches  in  circumference,  and  have  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
rows  of  kernels  on  an  ear.  The  plants  do  not  sucker  freely 
and  usually  a  stalk  produces  one  ear,  except  in  cases  of  the  so- 
called  prolific  varieties,  in  which  two  or  more  ears  are  commonly 
produced  on  a  stalk.  These  varieties  are  adapted  principally  to 
the  cotton-producing  states.  White  and  yellow  are  the  predomi- 
nating colors  of  dent  corn,  although  red,  red  and  white  mottled, 
blue,  and  purple  ears  are  found.     The  growing  season  of  dent 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize 


101 


corn  varies  in  separate  localities  and  with  different  varieties 
from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  days.  Some  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  varieties  are  known. 

Flint  corn.  —  In  flint  corn  (Fig.  31)  the  hard  endosperm  ex- 
tends along  the  sides  and  across  the  crown  and 
surrounds  the  soft  endosperm  and  the  germ. 
No  dent  is  formed.  The  grains  are  oval  in 
shape  and  hard,  smooth,  and  flinty  in  appear- 
ance. In  most  varieties  eight  rows  of  kernels 
are  found,  although  ears  with  as  many  as 
sixteen  rows  are  sometimes  seen.  The  ears 
are  about  the  same  length  as  those  of  dent 
corn,  but  are  much  smaller  in  circumference. 
White  and  yellow  are  the  predominating 
colors.  The  plants  are  somewhat  smaller 
than  those  of  dent  corn  and  usually  produce 
two  ears.  The  growing  season  is  short  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  the  type  usually  grown 
in  northern  regions  and  in  high  altitudes  of 
middle  and  southern  sections.  Canada,  New 
England,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  are 
the  principal  flint  corn  areas.  Some  seventy 
varieties  are  under  cultivation. 

Pop-corn.  —  The  endosperm  of  pop-corn  is 
nearly  all  of  the  hard,  or  horny,  kind,  al- 
though in  some  varieties  a  thin  layer  of  soft 
endosperm  is  found  around  the  germ.  The 
endosperm  contains  considerable  water  and 
when  heat  is  applied  this  water  changes  to 
steam  which  expands  the  kernel  and  causes 
it  to  burst  into  the  familiar  white,  fluffy  mass  of  popped  corn. 
Two  classes  are  grown,  —  rice  and  pearl.  In  rice  pop-corn 
(Fig.  32)  the  crown  of  the  kernel  is  in  a  sharp  point.  In  pearl 
varieties  the  crown  is  rounded.  The  plants  of  pop-corn  are 
much  smaller  than  those  of  dent  and  flint  corn  and  several 


Fig. 


31.  —  FUnt 
corn. 


102 


Effective  Farming 


ears  are  produced  on  a  stalk.  Pop-corn  can  be  grown  in  any 
region  where  flint  or  dent  corn  does  well,  but  in  the  United 
States  the  growing  of  this  type  of  corn  commercially  is  confined 

largely  to  two  counties  —  Sac  County,  Iowa 

and  Loup  County,  Nebraska. 

Sweet  corn.  —  The   carbohydrates  in  sweet 

corn  are  largely  in  the  form  of  sugar  instead 

of  the  starch  of  the  other  types,  and  this  ac- 
counts for  the  sweet  taste. 

The  grains  when  mature  are 

wrinkled,  as  shown  in  Fig. 

33,  and  the  endosperm  when 

dry   is   horny   and    glassy. 

The  ears  vary  considerably 

in  size  in  different  varieties ; 

some  are  small   and  have 

eight   rows  of  kernels  like 

the   flint    corn,    others   are 

nearly    as    large    as    good- 
sized    ears    of    dent    corn. 

In  some  varieties  the  ker- 
nels are  irregularly  placed 

on    the    ear.      The    stalks 

vary  in  height  from  two  to 

ten  feet  and  the  plants  have 

the     tendency     to     sucker 

freely.  Usually  two  or 
three  ears  grow  on  a  stalk.  Sweet  corn  is 
used  largely  for  cuUnary  purposes  ;  much  of 
the  product  is  canned.  The  growing  season 
varies  with  different  varieties  and  in  different 
sections  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  days. 

Soft  corn.  —  The  whole  endosperm  in  soft  corn  is  soft  starch ; 
the  kernel  can  easily  be  dented  with  the  thumb  nail.  The 
kernels  are  large,  often  measuring  three-fourths  inch  in  width. 


Fig.   32.  —  White 
rice  pop-corn. 


Fig. 


33.  —  Sweet 
corn. 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  103 

The  ears  have  somewhat  the  appearance  of  flint  corn,  except 
for  the  size  of  the  kernel.  Corn  of  this  type  is  grown  more 
largely  in  South  America,  Central  America,  and  Mexico  than 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  plants  are  usually 
tall-growing  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  varieties,  require 
a  long  season  for  maturity. 

Pod  corn.  —  Each  kernel  in  pod  corn  is  inclosed  in  a  husk. 
Corn  of  this  type  is  of  no  commercial  importance  and  is  grown 
as  a  curiosity. 

48.  Uses  of  corn.  —  The  principal  use  of  corn  is  for  stock 
feed.  The  grain  itself,  either  whole  or  ground,  is  fed  to  all 
kinds  of  live-stock ;  the  stalks  are  used  as  fodder,  and  the  whole 
plant,  stalk  and  ears,  is  the  best  material  available  for  silage. 
Many  by-products  from  the  manufactured  products  of  corn 
are  important  stock  foods.  Among  the  manufactured  products 
from  corn  are  hominy,  cerealine,  breakfast  foods,  corn-starch, 
corn-sirup,  corn-sugar,  alcohol,  paper,  corn-oil,  and  corn-rubber. 
The  use  of  sweet  corn,  pop-corn,  and  corn-meal  for  human  foods 
is  too  well  known  to  require  further  comment. 

49.  Selection  of  variety  of  corn  for  planting.  —  One  of  the  im- 
portant factors  in  profitable  corn  culture  is  the  selection  of  the 
right  variety  for  planting.  Each  corn-growing  region  has  varie- 
ties best  adapted  to  its  particular  climatic  and  soil  condition. 
If  matured  ears  are  desired,  corn  is  a  crop  that  requires  perfect 
acclimation  in  order  to  yield  profitable  returns.  The  farmer 
should,  therefore,  plant  only  those  varieties  that  do  well  in  his 
locality  and  should  use  seed  that  has  been  grown  in  his  vicinity. 
New  varieties  can  be  acclimated,  but  only  a  relatively  small 
quantity  should  be  planted  the  first  year.  If  some  of  the 
plants  mature,  from  these  a  small  quantity  of  seed  can  be  se- 
lected for  planting  the  next  year,  and  the  same  plan  followed 
for  the  succeeding  years.  By  taking  two  or  three  years,  a 
variety  that  has  become  acclimated  to  the  region  can  be  pro- 
duced. 

When  corn  is  to  be  used  for  silage,  it  is  not  necessary  that  it 


104  Effective  Farming 

mature  ears ;  consequently  seed  from  a  different  locality  can 
often  be  used  to  advantage.  For  example,  a  tall-growing  south- 
ern corn  may  be  grown  in  northern  sections;  such  a  corn 
will  produce  abundant  foliage  and  add  materially  to  the  quantity 
of  silage,  but  it  will  not  produce  many  ears.  In  order  that  the 
desired  proportion  of  ears  to  stalks  be  secured,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  mix  the  seed  to  be  planted  with  that  of  some  native 
corn  that  will  produce  ears. 

50.  Selection  and  care  of  seed  corn.  —  No  matter  how  care- 
fully the  other  factors  of  corn-growing  are  provided  for,  a  good 
stand  of  corn  cannot  be  expected  from  poor  seed.  The  aver- 
age yield  of  corn  in  the  United  States  is  less  than  twenty-six 
bushels  an  acre,  yet  there  are  many  farmers  who  grow  ninety 
bushels  an  acre  on  their  whole  corn-growing  area  and  record 
yields  as  high  as  228  bushels  (field  weight)  have  been  grown. 
Significant  in  this  connection  is  the  fact  that  much  of  the  low 
average  yield  of  corn  is  due  to  the  lack  of  proper  seed  selection. 

Selecting  the  ears  from  the  field.  —  The  best  place  to  make 
the  selection  of  seed  corn  is  in  the  field.  All  the  ears  should 
be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe  and  in  northern  regions  before  any 
freezing  has  occurred.  The  best  practice  is  to  go  through  the 
field  with  a  picking  bag  on  the  shoulder  and  gather  the  ears 
from  the  stalks. 

Kind  of  stalk  from  which  to  select  ears.  —  The  plant  from  which 
a  seed  ear  is  taken  should  be  one  that  produces  better  corn  than 
the  surrounding  individuals.  If  plants  are  growing  on  richer 
ground  or  by  themselves  in  a  field,  they  may  by  reason  of  these 
special  advantages  produce  better  ears,  but  they  are  not  likely 
to  have  any  greater  producing  power  stored  in  the  seed  than  a 
poor  ear  grown  under  unfavorable  conditions.  In  the  Cen- 
tral and  Southern  States,  where  there  is  a  tendency  for  stalks 
to  grow  too  tall,  short  thick  stalks  producing  pendent  ears 
at  or  below  their  middle  point  are  a  good  type  for  seed.  When 
exceedingly  early-maturing  varieties  are  desired,  seed  should 
be  taken  from  stalks  that  produce  ears  high  enough  to  keep 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  105 

them  from  touching  the  ground  when  they  become  pendent. 
In  proUfic  varieties  all  the  ears  of  a  stalk  are  of  equal  value  for 
seed.  As  suckers  are  undesirable,  seed  should  be  taken  only 
from  stalks  that  produced  none. 

Kind  of  seed  ear  to  select.  —  The  size  of  the  ear  depends 
somewhat  on  the  variety  and  location.  Smaller  ears  are  usually 
chosen  for  northern  climates  and  larger  ones  for  southern  cli- 
mates. The  ear  should  be  nearly  cyhndrical  in  shape ;  one  that 
is  too  tapering  contains  less  corn  than  a  cylindrical  ear  of  the 
same  size.  The  rows  should  be  straight  from  butt  to  tip; 
crooked,  irregular  rows  mean  kernels  of  irregular  shape  and 
size  and,  as  such  kernels  do  not  pass  through  the  planter  plates 
regularly,  irregular  planting  results.  The  tips  and  butts  should 
be  well  filled ;  this  means  a  larger  proportion  of  corn  to  cob. 

Too  much  space  between  the  kernels  next  to  the  cob  is  a 
bad  feature;  such  a  condition  gives  a  smaller  proportion  of 
corn  to  cob  and  the  kernels  are  likely  to  have  weak  germs. 
P.  G.  Holden,  of  the  International  Harvester  Company,  reports 
concerning  two  ears  of  the  same  length  and  circumference, 
but  one  having  much  more  space  between  the  kernels  at  the 
cob  than  the  other.  One  ear  weighed  13.45  ounces  and  the 
other  10.12  ounces;  the  first  shelled  out  35  per  cent  more 
corn  than  the  other.  The  width  of  the  furrows  between  the 
rows  should  not  show  too  much  space ;  the  space  reduces 
the  quantity  of  corn  to  cob.  In  some  varieties,  however, 
more  space  is  allowed  than  in  others.  Depth  of  grain  should 
be  carefully  looked  after ;  shallow  grains  mean  a  small  shelling 
percentage  of  corn.  In  general,  the  kernels  in  dent  varieties 
should  be  half  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  the  cob. 

The  kernels  should  be  wedge-shaped ;  they  will  then  fit 
snugly  together  at  the  cob.  Tapering  kernels  mean  space  at 
the  cob  and  a  small  shelling  percentage  of  corn  to  cob.  They 
should  have  strong  healthy-looking  germs;  dark  color  is  an 
indication  that  the  germs  may  have  been  frozen,  and  wrinkled 
germs  indicate  immaturity.     The  kernels  in  the  different  parts 


106 


Effective  Farming 


of  the  ear,  except  at  the  butts  and  tips,  should  be  of  nearly 
uniform  shape  and  size ;  they  will  then  drop  regularly  through 
the  plates  of  the  planter.  The  ear  should  be  well  matured; 
immature  corn  will  not  keep  well  in  storage  and  if  planted  will 
produce  weak  stalks  and  give  poor  yields. 

Caring  for  the  seed  ears.  —  As  soon  as  gathered,  the  seed  ears 
should  be  stored  in  a  well-ventilated  place  and  arranged  so  that 


Fig.  34.  —  Seed  corn  strung  with  binder  twine.    . 

they  will  not  touch  each  other.  Stringing  them  with  binder 
twine  (Fig.  34),  or  placing  them  on  wire  racks  (Fig.  35),  are 
very  satisfactory  ways  of  arranging  them  for  drying.  The 
wire  racks  are  made  by  cutting  electrically-welded  lawn  fenc- 
ing into  strips  and  bending  the  wires  on  which  the  ears  are  to 
be  placed.  When  the  corn  is  as  dry  as  old  corn,  it  should  be 
taken  from  the  twine  or  racks  and  stored  in  a  cool  dry  place 


Indian  Cornj  or  Maize 


107 


where  neither  moths,  rats,  nor  mice  can  injure  it.  An  attic 
or  upstairs  room,  if  free  from  moisture,  is  a  good  place.  A 
pound  of  moth-balls  or  naphthalene  should  be  stored  with 
each  bushel  to  protect  it  from  the  grain  moth.  Covering  the 
storage  boxes  or 
crates  with  fly 
screening  or  woven 
wire  of  a  fine  mesh 
will  protect  the  corn 
from  mice  and  rats. 
If  the  grain-weevil 
is  prevalent,  fumi- 
gate with  carbon 
disulfide  as  directed 
in  paragraph  58. 

51.  Testing  seed 
corn  for  germina- 
tion. —  That  it  pays 
to  test  seed  corn 
for  germination  has 
been  proved  repeat- 
edly in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  It 
was  found  at  the 
Iowa  Experiment 
Station,  for  exam- 
ple, in  carefully  con- 
ducted two-year 
tests,  that  the  testing  increased  the  acre-profits  93.6  per  cent  the 
first  year,  85.7  per  cent  the  second  year,  or  an  increase  of  19.6 
bushels  and  10.1  bushels.  In  these  experiments  the  cost  of  test- 
ing enough  seed  to  plant  an  acre  varied  from  14.4  cents  to  57.6 
cents.  Both  home-made  and  manufactured  testers  were  used 
and  some  equally  good  results  were  secured  from  both. 

Sawdust-box   tester.  —  One   of   the    most    used    home-made 


Fig. 


35.  —  Seed    corn    on   racks   made   from    wire 
fencing. 


108 


Effective  Farming 


testers  is  the  sawdust-box  tester.  To  make  and  use  one  of 
these  the  following  directions  should  be  observed :  Secure  a 
box  3  or  4  inches  deep  and  about  30  inches  square.  Place 
in  a  burlap  bag  enough  sawdust  to  half  fill  the  box  and  soak 
it  bag  and  all  in  water  for  several  hours.  When  moist  spread 
it  in  a  layer  in  the  box  and  press  it  to  a  smooth  even  surface. 
Rule  off  a  piece  of  muslin  about  the  size  of  the  box  into  squares 
about  2^  inches  each  way  and  number  these  squares  1,  2,  3, 


Fig,  36.  —  Seed  corn  tested  in  the  sawdust-box  tester. 

and  so  on.  Place  the  cloth  in  the  box  and  tack  it  to  the  edges 
and  corners.  Place  the  ears  to  be  tested  side  by  side  on  a  table 
or  shelf  and  number  them  in  order  1,  2,  3,  and  so  on.  Fig. 
36  shows  the  ears  arranged  on  a  table  as  here  described.  With 
a  sharp-pointed  instrument  remove  six  kernels  from  each  ear 
and  place  them  in  the  square  in  the  box  that  accords  with  the 
number  of  the  ear.  When  removing  the  kernels  take  one  from 
near  the  tip,  one  from  near  the  middle,  and  one  from  near  the 
butt,  turn  the  ear  over  and  remove  six  more  in  the  same  manner. 
When  the  kernels  have  been  placed  in  the  squares  lay  a  piece 
of  muslin  over  them  and  sprinkle  water  on  the  cloth ;    above 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize 


109 


this  place  another  layer  of  cloth  somewhat  larger  than  the  box 
and  fill  in  about  2  inches  of  moist  sawdust  above  this,  press  it 
down  firmly,  and  fold  the  edges  of  the  cloth  over  the  sawdust, 


Fig.  37.  —  Kernels  of  seed  corn  sprouted  in  the  sawdust-box  tester. 


as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  Keep  this  tester  in  a  warm  room  and  the 
kernels  should  germinate  in  about  six  days.  At  the  end  of  the 
time  remove  the  upper  cloth,  being  careful  to  avoid  misplac- 
ing the  kernels  in  the  squares.  Examine  the  kernels  and  dis- 
card as  seed  all  ears  which  show  one  or  more  dead  or  decidedly 


no 


Effective  Farming 


weak  kernels.  Figure  37  shows  kernels  tested  in  this  way. 
Which  ones  would  you  discard? 

Rag-doll  tester.  —  Another  home-made  tester  that  has  been 
used  with  very  good  results  is  known  as  the  rag-doll  tester. 
One  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.  The  illustration  is  furnished 
by  the  courtesy  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
and  the  following  description  and  comments  are  from  its 
Bulletin  135. 

"  One  of  the  cheapest  as  well  as  the  most  convenient  and 
accurate  methods  which  can  be  employed  in  testing  seed  corn 


Fig.  38.  —  The  rag-doll  seed  corn  tester. 

is  that  known  as  the  rag-doll  method.  In  preparing  to  make 
this  test,  secure  sheeting  of  a  good  quality  and  tear  into  strips 
from  8  to  10  inches  wide  and  3  to  5  feet  long.  Where  these  are 
to  be  used  very  much  it  is  well  to  hem  the  edges  as  otherwise 
the  ravelings  sometimes  disarrange  the  kernels  in  unrolling. 
Each  cloth  should  then  be  marked  with  a  heavy  pencil,  first, 
lengthwise  in  the  middle  and  then  crosswise,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration,  making  squares  about  3  inches 
wide.  Number  the  squares  as  shown  in  the  illustration 
also. 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  111 

*'  Moisten  one  of  these  cloths  and  lay  it  out  on  a  board  of 
convenient  size  in  front  of  the  ears  which  are  to  be  tested. 
Remove  six  kernels  from  ear  No.  1  and  place  in  the  square 
No.  1  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  cloth.  Take  six 
kernels  from  ear  No.  2  and  place  in  square  No.  2  in  the  upper 
right  hand  corner,  ear  No.  3  in  the  next  square  on  the  left  hand 
side,  and  ear  No.  4  in  a  corresponding  position  on  the  right 
side.  When  the  cloth  has  been  filled  begin  at  the  upper  end 
with  ears  Nos.  1  and  2,  etc.,  and  roll  the  cloth  up.  Since  the 
cloth  is  moistened  the  kernels  will  not  push  out  of  place.  If  a 
small  irregular  shaped  piece  of  wood  or  some  other  substance 
is  used  as  a  core  in  rolling,  a  more  uniform  germination  may 
be  secured.  When  the  rolling  of  the  cloth  has  been  finished, 
tie  a  string  rather  loosely  about  the  middle  of  the  roll;  or 
better  still,  use  a  rubber  band,  and  number  this  roll  No.  1. 
Then  proceed  with  roll  No.  2  in  the  same  way.  As  many  rolls 
may  be  used  as  are  necessary  to  contain  the  corn  which  one  has 
to  test.  From  20  to  50  ears  can  be  tested  in  each  roll,  depend- 
ing upon  the  length. 

''  After  the  rolls  have  been  filled  they  should  be  placed  in  a 
bucket  of  water  where  they  may  remain  for  from  2  to  18  hours, 
depending  upon  the  preference  of  the  operator.  At  the  end 
of  this  time  pour  off  the  water  and  turn  the  bucket  upside 
down  over  the  rolls  —  or  a  common  dry  goods  box  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  A  couple  of  small  pieces  of  wood  should 
preferably  be  laid  under  the  rolls  and  one  edge  of  the  pail  should 
be  lifted  from  one  half  to  one  inch  in  order  to  give  sufficient 
veritilation.  Some  have  left  the  pail  in  an  upright  position, 
placing  a  few  sticks  or  corn  cobs  in  the  bottom  of  the  pail  to 
insure  proper  drainage,  and  then  packing  a  moist,  coarse  cloth 
over  the  rolls  to  prevent  excessive  drying.  At  the  end  of  five 
days  the  kernels  should  be  ready  to  read. 

''  Depending  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  ears,  select,  first, 
either  roll  No.  1  or  the  last  roll  filled.  This  cloth  will  be  un- 
rolled in  front  of  the  ears  which  are  represented.     Examine 


112  Effective  Farming 

all  the  kernels  carefully.     In  all  cases  in  which  all  six  kernels 
are  not  strong  in  germination  the  ear  should  be  thrown  away." 

52.  Soils  and  climate  for  corn.  —  A  well  drained  loam  rich 
in  humus  is  the  soil  best  adapted  for  corn.  Heavy  clays  and 
sandy  soils  are  not  usually  good  for  this  crop.  In  rotation  corn 
does  well  after  a  grass  or  legume.  A  loamy  piece  that  has 
been  in  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpeas  is  an  ideal  medium  for  a 
planting  of  corn. 

The  crop  requires  a  long  growing  season,  abundant  sunshine, 
and  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture.  These  conditions  are  found 
in  the  corn-belt  states,  which,  together  with  the  soil  types 
found  there,  make  the  region  well  suited  for  corn.  This  must 
not  be  taken  to  mean,  however,  that  many  other  sections  are 
not  adaptable  for  corn-growing. 

53.  Enriching  soils  for  corn.  —  The  use  of  stable  manure 
on  land  to  be  planted  to  corn  is  profitable.  When  a  sod  piece 
is  to  be  plowed  for  corn,  the  manure  is  often  applied  the  spring 
before  ;  it  will  then  benefit  both  the  hay  crop  and  the  corn  that 
follows.  Another  practice  is  to  apply  the  manure  in  the  fall 
after  the  hay  has  been  cut  and  before  the  sod  has  been  plowed 
under.  In  this  method  the  manure  benefits  the  corn  crop 
and  to  some  extent  the  crops  that  follow. 

Commercial  fertiUzer  is  often  used  with  good  results  for  corn, 
especially  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States.  The  formula 
to  use  depends  on  the  soil,  and  the  county  agents  in  the  several 
states  can  give  good  advice  to  those  desiring  information  about 
a  particular  type  of  soil. 

54.  Preparation  of  land  for  corn.  —  The  time  of  year  land 
should  be  plowed  for  corn  varies  in  different  parts  and  with 
different  farmers  in  the  same  section.  Some  plow  in  the  fall ; 
others  plow  in  the  spring.  Some  of  the  advantages  of  fall 
plowing  are  that  the  vegetable  matter  turned  underneath  the 
furrow-slice  has  time  to  decay,  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  the 
upturned  land,  if  the  farm  is  where  the  ground  freezes,  tends 
to  pulverize  the  soil,  many  larvae  of  insects  are  killed  by  the 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  113 

freezing  weather  of  winter,,  and  the  work  is  done  at  a  time  when 
other  work  on  the  farm  is  not  pressing.  A  disadvantage  is 
that  much  soluble  plant-food  is  likely  to  be  lost  during  the  win- 
ter by  percolation  to  depths  below  the  reach  of  roots.  This 
appUes  especially  when  the  ground  does  not  remain  frozen 
during  the  winter.  Another  disadvantage  is  that  the  soil 
is  likely  to  wash  badly  during  the  winter. 

If  plowing  is  done  in  the  spring,  it  should  be  early  in  order  to 
give  time  for  the  sod  and  manure  to  decay.  The  soil  bacteria 
and  the  aeration  of  the  soil  are  more  active  in  plowed  than  in 
unplowed  land;  consequently  the  early  plowing,  through  the 
increased  action  of  these  agencies,  adds  to  the  supply  of  avail- 
able plant-food  for  the  corn  crop.  Early  spring  plowing,  if 
followed  by  harrowing  to  form  a  mulch  on  the  soil,  will  conserve 
moisture.     This  is  an  especial  advantage  in  a  dry  spring. 

Following  the  plowing,  the  land  must  be  made  into  a  fine, 
easily  worked  seed-bed.  Clods  left  in  the  field  will  be  trouble- 
some during  the  whole  growing  season,  and  should  be  broken 
up  before  the  seed  is  planted.  Corn  planted  on  poorly  pre- 
pared land  has  little  chance  to  make  a  good  crop. 

55.  Planting  the  seed.  —  Corn  can  be  planted  as  soon  as 
danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  ground  has  become  sufficiently 
warm  to  insure  germination.  The  time,  of  course,  will  vary 
considerably  in  different  localities. 

Depth  of  planting.  —  The  depth  that  corn  is  to  be  planted 
should  be  governed  largely  by  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil.  In  most  soils  of  good  tilth,  the  planting  should  be  shallow, 
about  two  inches.  In  a  dry  soil  that  is  somewhat  lumpy,  deeper 
planting,  from  three  to  five  inches,  is  likely  to  give  better  results. 

Methods  of  planting.  —  The  two  general  methods  of  planting 
corn  are  in  hills  and  in  drills.  When  planted  in  hills,  from  three 
to  five  kernels  are  placed  in  groups  from  three  to  four  feet  apart 
each  way.  The  number  of  kernels  to  the  hill  and  the  distance 
apart  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  soil.  In  a  fertile  soil 
the  planting  can  be  thicker  than  in  poor  soil. 


114  Effective  Farming 

Corn  planted  in  drills  is  placed  in  rows,  each  kernel  in  a  sep- 
arate place.  The  distance  apart  of  the  kernels  varies  in  dif- 
ferent localities  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches,  depending  on  the 
soil  conditions.  The  space  between  the  rows  varies,  also, 
from  three  feet,  six  inches  to  five  feet. 

Often  in  the  South  the  corn  is  planted  on  ridges,  or  hills  of 
earth,  with  deep  furrows  between  the  ridges.  This  is  largely 
because  the  drainage  is  poor  and  during  a  wet  time  the  water 
will  stand  in  the  furrows  and  the  ridge  will  be  above  the  stand- 
ing water.  On  sandy  or  loamy  soils  in  the  South,  corn  is  some- 
times planted  in  the  water  furrow  instead  of  on  the  ridge. 
This  plan  is  not  advisable  if  the  soils  are  at  all  heavy,  but 
where  soils  are  inclined  to  be  dry,  there  is  an  advantage  in  this 
method  on  account  of  the  more  moist  condition  of  the  soil  in 
the  furrow. 

Many  of  the  experiment  stations  have  tested  the  different 
methods  of  planting  for  their  states  and  have  published  the 
results  in  bulletins.  It  will  be  well  for  pupils  and  farmers  to 
communicate  with  the  officers  of  these  institutions  to  find  out 
what  has  been  done  along  this  line. 

Rate  of  planting.  —  The  rate  of  planting  varies  considerably, 
ranging  from  three  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  stalks  to  the 
acre.  If  the  hills  are  four  or  five  feet  apart  with  two  stalks 
to  the  hill,  as  they  are  in  some  parts  of  the  Gulf  States,  only 
about  three  thousand  plants  are  grown  to  the  acre.  If  they  are 
three  feet,  six  inches  apart  each  way  with  three  or  four  stalks 
to  the  hill,  as  often  planted  in  the  North,  twelve  thousand 
stalks  are  grown  to  the  acre. 

Implements  for  planting.  —  A  large  part  of  the  corn  grown 
in  the  United  States  is  planted  by  means  of  corn-planters. 
For  small  areas  a  hand  planter,  known  as  a  jabber,  is  very 
often  used.  In  the  corn-belt  two-row  planters  are  the  chief 
kinds.  Many  of  these  are  arranged  to  drop  the  kernels  in 
groups  and  are  known  as  check-row  planters.  One  is  shown 
in  Fig.  39.     In  the  South  much  of  the  corn  is  planted  by  means 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize 


115 


of  a  one-row  planter,  the  same  implement  often  being  used  for 
planting  cotton  (Fig.  208).  In  some  parts  of  the  West  and 
South,  a  lister  is  used  for  planting  corn.  This  is  an  implement 
fitted  with  two  shovels  so  placed  that  they  throw  a  furrow  both 
ways.  The  hoe  through  which  the  corn  feeds  is  between  these 
shovels  and  the  corn  is  planted  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 
The  use  of  the  lister  is  limited  to  loose,  fertile  soils.     In  the 


Fig. 


39.  —  A  tw(j-row  coni-plauter  arranged  with  wire  to  drop  the  kernels 
into  hills. 


West  the  land  is  not  plowed  before  the  corn  is  planted  and  sub- 
sequent cultivation  fills  in  the  furrow  as  the  corn  grows. 

Testing  the  planter.  —  A  very  important  factor  in  the  suc- 
cessful growing  of  corn  is  the  testing  of  the  planter  to  find  out 
whether  it  will  drop  the  kernels  regularly.  The  testing  should, 
of  course,  be  done  with  some  of  the  seed  that  is  to  be  planted. 
Drawing  the  planter  across  a  barn  floor  or  along  a  stretch  of 
road  is  a  good  way  to  determine  how  it  is  dropping  the  kernels. 
In  case  it  does  not  drop  regularly,  the  planter  plates  should 


116 


Effective  Farming 


be  changed  or  sometimes  the  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by  fil- 
ing the  holes  in  the  plates  to  make  them  larger. 

56.  Cultivating  the  fields.  —  Corn  requires  frequent  and 
thorough  cultivation,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  growth. 
The  cultivating  not  only  kills  the  weeds,  but  it  aerates  the  soil 
and  conserves  the  moisture,  which  corn  requires  in  abundance 
for  its  best  development.  A  weeder  or  a  spike-tooth  harrow 
with  the  teeth  turned  back  should  be  used  even  before  the 


Fig.  40.  —  A  corn-cultivator  equipped  with  small  shovels. 


plants  are  above  the  ground.  Many  weeds  will  thus  be  Idlled 
and  a  mulch  formed.  If  the  work  is  done  during  the  middle 
of  a  hot,  sunshiny  day,  these  implements  can  be  used  until 
the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  high.  In  the  heat  of  the  day 
the  plants  are  not  easily  broken.  After  the  plants  are  large 
a  corn-cultivator  equipped  with  small  shovels  should  be  used 
(Figs.  40  and  204).  Shallow  cultivation  (about  two  inches) 
is  best  for  corn,  as  deep  cultivation  cuts  off  too  many  roots. 
In  dry  seasons  the  cultivation  should  be  kept  up  until  well  into 
the  summer  to  conserve  all  the  soil-moisture  possible.     When 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize 


117 


the  plants  become  tall,  a  one-horse  cultivator  can  be  run  be- 
tween the  rows. 

57.  Harvesting  the  crop.  —  The  method  of  harvesting  varies 
with  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  crop.  If  mature  ears  are  de- 
sired, they  are  husked  either  from  the  standing  stalks  or  from 
the  stalks  after  they  are  cut  and  placed  in  shocks.  In  the  corn- 
belt  states,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  drive  through  the  field 
with  a  team  and  double-box  wagon,  husk  the  ears  from  the 


1 

* 
^^^v 

-^PPRgl    /A,'^  "'  '* 

1 

1 

^mb 

m 

W 

W^T^^_ 

|BH^^^^^^^^'^'  ^T^^^^^^^B 

Fig.  41.  —  A  corn-binder  with  bundle  elevator. 


standing  stalks,  and  throw  them  into  the  wagon.  Live-stock 
are  allowed  to  run  in  the  fields  after  the  corn  is  husked  to  eat 
any  nubbins  left  and  what  stalks  they  will.  Corn  that  is  to 
be  shocked  before  the  husking  is  often  cut  by  hand  with  large 
knives.  There  are  on  the  market  machines  that  can  profitably 
be  employed  in  cutting  the  stalks.  Of  these  the  most  efficient 
is  the  corn-binder,  which  cuts  the  stalks,  binds  them  in  bundles, 
and  either  drops  them  on  the  ground  or  elevates  them  into 
a  wagon  driven  by  the  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  41.  The  bundles 
are  placed  in  shocks  and  when  the  ears  are  dry  they  are  husked 
(Fig.  42)  and  the  bundles  of  stalks  (corn  stover)  are  stored  for 
use  later  in  the  feeding  of  five-stock.     Corn,  when  both  ears  and 


118 


Effective  Farming 


Fig.  42.  —  Husking  corn  from  the  shock. 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize 


119 


stover  are  to  be  fed,  is  usually  cut  when  the  husks  are  dry  and 
about  a  third  of  the  leaves  are  still  green.  This  gives  the  best 
yield  of  both  ears  and  stOver.  Before  this  stage  the  corn  is 
too  immature  and  if  cut  too  late  many  of  the  leaves  will  drop  off  ; 
consequently  the  feeding  value  of  the  stover  is  much  lessened. 
When  only  the  ears 
are  desired,  the  cut- 
ting may  be  delayed 
until  the  stalks  are 
mature.  A  machine 
known  as  a  husker 
and  shredder  is  often 
employed  to  remove 
the  ears  from  the 
cut  stalks  and  to 
shred  the  fodder 
into  small  pieces. 
This  shredded  fod- 
der is  easily  stored 
and  is  good  feed, 
especially  for  cattle. 
Fodder-pulling  is 
a  method  employed 
in  some  parts  of  the 
South  for  securing 
forage  from  the  corn 
plant.  Handfuls  of 
leaves  are  pulled  from  the  standing  stalks,  tied  together,  and 
hung  on  the  stripped  stalks  to  cure.  Topping  of  corn  is  another 
method  used  in  the  South.  This  consists  in  removing  the  top 
of  the  stalk  above  the  ear  and  placing  these  in  shocks  to  cure 
for  fodder.  In  either  method  the  ears  are  later  removed  for 
grain.  Experiments  have  shown  that  these  practices  result 
in  a  loss  of  grain ;  consequently  they  are  not  advisable  unless 
the  fodder  is  of  sufficient  value  to  offset  the  loss  of  grain. 


Filling  the  silo. 


120  Effective  Farming 

Corn  for  silage  is  harvested  when  it  is  somewhat  immature. 
The  grains  should  have  passed  the  milk  stage  and  glazed  to 
some  extent.  The  stalks  will  still  be  partly  green.  In  case 
the  corn  cannot  be  cut  until  a  little  past  this  stage,  the  silage 
should  be  wet  down  in  the  silo.  A  corn-binder  is  very  useful 
for  cutting  corn  for  silage,  as  the  bundles  can  be  hauled  to  the 
silo  as  soon  as  they  have  been  harvested.  They  are  prepared 
by  means  of  a  silage-cutter,  a  machine  that  cuts  the  stalks  into 
small  pieces  and  elevates  them  to  the  top  of  the  silo.  They 
fall  to  the  bottom  and,  as  the  silo  fills,  the  mass  of  material  is 
kept  level  by  men  with  rakes  or  forks  stationed  for  that  pur- 
pose in  the  silo.  Figure  43  shows  a  typical  silo-filling  scene. 
Notice  the  bundles  of  corn,  the  silage-cutter,  the  pipe  for 
elevating  the  cut  corn,  and  the  tractor  that  furnishes  the 
power. 

58.  Pests  of  corn.  —  Several  insect  and  a  few  fungous  pests 
by  their  ravages  reduce  considerably  the  yield  of  corn  in  the 
United  States.  Among  these  pests  are  corn  root-worms, 
corn  root-louse,  wire- worms,  cutworms,  white-grubs,  corn  ear- 
worms,  grain-weevils,  chinch-bugs,  army-worms,  corn-smut, 
and  ear-rot. 

Corn  root-worms.  —  Among  the  most  troublesome  of  the 
insect  pests  of  corn  are  the  root-worms,  two  species  of  which 
are  known,  the  Northern,  or  Western,  and  the  Southern. 
The  eggs  of  both  species  are  laid  in  the  ground  in  the  fall.  They 
hatch  about  the  last  of  June  or  the  first  of  July  and  soon  enter 
the  tip  of  the  corn  root  and  burrow  back  and  forth  lengthwise. 
Often  five  or  six  worms  are  found  in  a  root  and  Holden  reports 
465  from  a  hill.  The  roots  injured  by  the  worms  die  and  the 
plants  become  so  weakened  that  they  blow  over  easily.  The 
worms  when  full-grown  are  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length, 
about  as  large  around  as  a  pin,  and  are  practically  colorless. 
They  go  into  the  pupa  stage  in  late  summer  and  soon  emerge 
as  beetles  about  an  inch  in  length.  The  beetles  of  the  Northern 
worm  are  grass-green  in  color;   those  of  the  Southern  species 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  121 

are  yellowish-green  with  twelve  black  spots  on  the  back.  The 
mature  insects  feed  on  the  silk  and  on  the  kernels  at  the  tip  of 
the  ears.  Crop  rotation  helps  to  destroy  them.  The  Northern 
worms  feed  on  no  other  roots  than  those  of  corn ;  consequently 
depriving  the  larvae  of  their  food  will  starve  them.  The  South- 
em  worms  feed  on  some  other  species  of  plants ;  nevertheless 
their  principal  food  is  corn  roots  and  rotation  is,  therefore,  a 
benefit.  Experience  in  the  corn-belt  shows  that  when  a  sys- 
tem of  crop  rotation  is  practiced,  little  damage  is  done  to  the 
corn  by  this  insect,  but  when  corn  follows  corn  the  damage  is 
likely  to  be  excessive. 

Corn  root-louse.  —  Like  all  members  of  the  plant-lice  family, 
the  corn  root-louse  gets  its  nourishment  by  sucking  sap  from  the 
plants.  The  plant,  deprived  of  some  of  its  food,  soon  weakens 
and,  if  the  ravages  are  excessive,  may  die.  The  lice  are  smaller 
than  the  head  of  a  pin  and  are  found  in  large  numbers  on  corn 
roots.  There  are  from  nine  to  twelve  generations  a  year  and, 
as  may  be  inferred,  the  damage  done  by  such  a  large  number 
of  insects  is  very  great.  Lice  are  always  found  associated  with 
ants  which  guard  and  care  for  them  and  in  return  for  this 
service  the  lice  excrete  through  two  tubes  on  the  back  of  the 
abdomen  a  sweet  liquid  known  as  honey-dew  on  which  the 
ants  feed.  The  finding  of  ants  near  a  hill  of  corn  nearly  always 
means  that  lice  are  at  work  on  the  roots.  The  effect  of  the 
insects  is  to  retard  growth  and  to  produce  a  yellowing  of  the 
corn.  Often  the  tips  of  the  leaves  will  have  a  purplish  tinge 
and  the  stalks  a  slightly  reddish  color.  As  the  corn  is  retarded 
in  growth,  it  is  likely  to  be  caught  by  early  frosts,  the  yield 
will  be  poor,  and  the  quality  not  of  the  best.  When  the  corn 
roots  become  woody,  the  ants  transfer  the  lice  to  roots  of  smart- 
weed  and  foxtail.  Weedy  fields  are  for  this  reason  often  badly 
infested  with  the  insect.  The  principal  remedies  are  rotation 
of  crops  and  early  and  clean  cultivation.  Rotation  of  crops 
deprives  the  lice  of  their  food  and  the  ants  will  take  them  away. 
Clean  cultivation  destroys  smart  weed  and  foxtail  and,  if  done 


122  Effective  Farming 

before  the  corn  plants  are  above  the  ground,  hinders  the  ants 
from  transferring  the  Uce  to  the  roots  of  the  corn. 

Wire-worm.  —  Another  pest  of  corn  is  the  wire- worm. 
These  are  the  larvae  of  click  beetles.  They  damage  the  corn 
by  eating  the  seed  in  the  ground  and  by  boring  and  eating  the 
stems  and  roots  of  the  young  plants.  The  larvae  of  different 
species  vary  in  length  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-half  inches. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  sod  land  and  the  insects  require  from  three 
to  five  years  to  reach  the  adult  stage.  When  corn  follows  grass 
in  a  field  that  is  badly  infested  with  the  wire- worms,  the  dam- 
age to  the  corn  is  likely  to  be  great.  One  remedy  is  to  keep  the 
land  in  grass  only  a  short  time,  perhaps  one  or  two  years,  as 
the  worms  are  always  more  numerous  in  old  sod  fields  than  in 
those  that  have  been  in  grass  only  a  short  time.  Fall  plowing 
also  helps  to  lessen  the  numbers  of  both  the  beetles  and  the 
larvae. 

Cutworms.  —  Often  cutworms  are  troublesome  in  corn 
fields.  They  are  larvae  of  many  different  kinds  of  moths. 
During  the  summer  the  moths  lay  eggs  on  grass  leaves  and  the 
larvae  soon  hatch  and  feed  on  the  green  leaves.  During  the 
winter  they  remain  in  the  ground  and  in  the  spring  come  out 
and  feed  on  growing  plants,  cutting  off  the  plants  just  above 
the  ground.  They  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  fields  that 
have  been  in  grass  a  long  time.  Thus  one  way  to  control 
these  worms  is  to  practice  a  rotation  with  grass  kept  on  the 
ground  only  one  or  two  years.  Fall  plowing  is  an  aid,  as  it 
exposes  them  to  the  winter  weather  and  kills  the  vegetation 
on  which  they  feed  in  the  early  spring.  On  small  areas  the 
worms  can  be  poisoned,  but  this  method  is  not  practicable 
on  large  areas.  A  mixture  made  according  to  the  formula, 
forty  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  two  quarts  of  molasses,  and  one 
pound  of  paris  green,  is  moistened  with  water  and  a  teaspoonful 
placed  near  each  hill  of  corn.  The  molasses  attracts  the  worms 
and,  if  the  mixture  is  eaten,  the  poison  kills  them. 

White-grub.  —  The  larvae   of   May   beetles,    or  June   bugs, 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  123 

known  as  white-grubs  are  often  a  pest  in  corn  fields.  They  feed 
on  the  roots  of  the  young  plants.  It  has  been  found  that  they 
are  less  numerous  in  fields  that  are  kept  in  sod  only  a  short 
time  than  in  old  sod  fields  and  the  remedy,  therefore,  is  a  short 
rotation  for  the  grass  crop.  Fall  plowing  is  also  an  aid  as 
it  exposes  the  grubs  to  the  weather  and  destroys  the  plants 
they  would  feed  on  in  early  spring. 

Corn  ear-worm.  —  An  insect  known  as  the  corn  ear- worm 
that  is  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length  and  varies  in 
color  from  green  to  brown  does  considerable  damage  to  corn. 
It  is  the  same  as  the  cotton  boll-worm.  The  worms  are  covered 
with  stripes  of  practically  the  same  color  as  the  body  and  on 
each  segment  are  eight  black  spots  from  which  short  hairs  ex- 
tend. This  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  large,  grayish  moth  which 
usually  lays  the  eggs  on  the  silk  or  leaves  of  the  plant.  The 
larvae  feed  principally  on  the  tip  of  the  ear  and  destroy  the 
grain,  doing  damage  by  providing  a  place  for  mold,  rot,  and 
grain-weevils  to  enter  the  ear.  They  sometimes  feed  also  on 
the  upper  leaves  of  the  plant.  These  worms  when  on  sweet 
corn  very  much  lessen  its  value.  No  very  effective  remedy 
has  been  found,  although  it  is  claimed  that  late  fall  plowing 
helps  to  reduce  their  number. 

Grain-weevil.  —  A  serious  pest  of  corn,  especially  in  the 
South,  is  the  grain-weevil.  The  insects  attack  the  matured 
grain  in  the  fields  and  also  in  the  crib  after  the  corn  has  been 
harvested.  Not  much  can  be  done  to  stop  their  work  in  the 
field,  except  to  resort  to  late  planting  and  to  decrease  the  num- 
ber of  ear-worms.  Early  varieties  of  corn  are  more  susceptible 
than  late  ones.  To  combat  the  insects  in  stored  grain,  fumiga- 
tion with  carbon  disulfide  is  employed.  This  is  a  liquid  that 
evaporates  quickly  when  exposed  to  the  air ;  in  the  gaseous 
form  it  is  heavier  than  air  and  for  this  reason  should  be  placed 
at  the  top  of  an  inclosure  to  be  fumigated.  Tight  bins  are 
necessary.  For  shelled  corn  twenty  pounds  of  the  carbon  disul- 
fide is  used  for  each  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  in  the  inclosure 


124 


Effective  Farming 


to  be  fumigated.     It  may  be  placed  in  shallow  vessels  on  top 
of  the  corn  or  be  poured  on  the  pile,  which  should  be  covered 

with  a  heavy  cloth  and  left 
undisturbed  for  twenty-four 
hours.  Carbon  disulfide  is 
very  inflammable  and  all  fire 
should  be  kept  away  during 
the  fumigation. 

Migratory  insects  in  corn. 
—  Migratory  insects  that 
sometimes  damage  corn  are 
chinch-bugs  and  army- 
worms.  They  can  often  be 
prevented  from  entering  a 
corn  field  by  throwing  two 
furrows  together  about  the 
field  and  maintaining  in  the 
ridge  formed  at  the  top  of 
the  furrow-slices  a  dust 
barrier  by  means  of  drag- 
ging a  log  along  the  ridge. 
Holes  dug  at  intervals  in 
front  of  the  furrows  on  the 
side  from  which  the  insects 
are  approaching  will  catch 
many  of  them  as  they  try 
to  get  over  the  barrier,  and 
water  with  a  little  kerosene 
placed  in  the  holes  will  kill 
the  insects. 

Corn-smut.  —  The  most 
troublesome  fungous  disease 
of  corn  is  smut.  It  appears  in  black  masses  of  spores  on  any  part 
of  the  plant  except  the  roots,  but  is  usually  found  on  the  ears  or 
tassels.     Fig.    44   shows    a  smut-infested    ear.     Warm   moist 


Fig.  44.  —  Corn-smut. 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  125 

weather  is  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  spores  and  for  this 
reason  the  disease  is  more  prevalent  during  some  seasons  than 
others.  About  the  only  way  to  combat  it  is  to  go  through  the 
fields  two  or  three  times  during  the  growing  season  and  collect 
the  masses.  This  would  be  worth  the  time  only  in  a  badly 
infested  field. 

Ear-rots.  —  Several  kinds  of  ear-rots  are  found  on  corn. 
Of  these  the  dry  ear-rot  is  the  most  common.  This  affects 
cob,  kernels,  and  husks.  The  ear  becomes  dark  in  color, 
except  for  mold  between  the  rows  of  kernels.  The  best  remedy 
is  to  burn  the  diseased  ears  as  they  are  collected  at  harvest 
time  and,  on  badly  infested  fields,  to  burn  the  stalks.  The 
spread  of  the  different  rots  is  more  prevalent  in  warm  moist 
seasons  than  in  dry  ones. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  and  compare  the  four  chief  types  of  corn. 

2.  When  mature  ears  are  desired  why  should  a  farmer  select  home- 
grown seed  corn  for  planting? 

3.  Which  is  better,  selection  of  seed  corn  from  the  field  or  from 
the  crib?     Why? 

4.  Why  should  a  farmer  test  the  seed  corn  that  he  expects  to  plant  ? 

5.  Describe  briefly  an  ideal  seed  ear  of  dent  corn. 

'  6.  When  is  corn  usually  planted  in  your  vicinity  ?  How  does  this 
compare  with  the  time  a  hundred  miles  north  or  south  of  you  ? 

7.  Why  should  a  corn-planter  be  tested  before  planting  the  field 
to  corn? 

8.  Tell  of  the  benefits  of  frequent  shallow  cultivation  of  a  corn 
field.     Why. should  deep  cultivation  be  avoided? 

9.  Give  the  life  histories  of  the  Northern  and  of  the  Southern 
corn  root- worms. 

10.   What  remedies  are  used  to  combat  the  corn  root-louse? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Characteristics  of  corn.  —  Examine  carefully  ears  of  dent,  flint, 
pop,  and  sweet  corn  and  write  in  your  notebooks  the  characteristics 
of  each.  Remove  a  few  kernels  of  each  kind  of  corn  and  compare 
them  as  to  size,  shape,  flintiness,  and  size  of  germ.     Soak  the  kernels 


126  Effective  Farming 

in  water  for  a  few  hours.  Cut  part  of  them  lengthwise  of  the  germ  and 
notice  the  depth  of  germ,  the  hard  and  the  soft  endosperm,  and  the 
color  of  the  seed-coat.  Cut  the  others  crosswise  of  the  germ  and  notice 
the  width  of  germ  and  the  hard  and  the  soft  endosperm. 

In  the  fall  soon  after  school  opens  visit  fields  of  the  different  types 
of  corn  found  in  your  vicinity  and  observe  the  character  of  growth 
of  each,  the  root  development  of  the  plants,  and  the  character  of  the 
stalks  and  the  leaves. 

2.  Percentage  of  stand.  —  Count  the  stalks  in  an  average  square 
rod  of  a  field  of  corn  and  compute  the  percentage  of  stand  compared 
with  a  perfect  stand. 

3.  Harvesting  and  storing  corn.  —  On  a  field  trip  when  corn  is  being 
harvested  in  the  vicinity,  study  and  write  descriptions  of  the  methods 
of  harvesting  and  storing  of  the  crop  as  practiced  by  different  farmers. 

4.  Gathering  seed  corn.  —  Every  school  where  agriculture  is  studied 
will  require  a  supply  of  seed  corn  for  use  in  the  class-room  work.  In 
order  that  the  best  methods  of  securing  and  caring  for  the  seed  may  be 
practiced,  none  of  the  details  given  on  the  previous  pages  should  be 
neglected.  When  securing  the  seed  for  the  school,  go  through  the 
field  at  the  proper  time  in  the  fall  with  a  packing  bag  over  the  shoulder 
and  select  the  ears.  Pupils  should  follow  this  plan  for  their  home 
farms  and  often  the  teacher  can  arrange  to  have  the  school  select  seed 
ears  for  persons  who  have  no  pupils  attending  the  school.  By  follow- 
ing this  plan  the  school  increases  its  value  to  the  community.  A  por- 
tion of  the  seed  ears  gathered  should  be  reserved  for  use  in  class-room 
work. 

5.  Caring  for  seed  corn.  —  After  the  seed  ears  are  gathered,  string 
them  as  shown  in  Fig.  41,  place  them  on  wire  racks  as  shown  in  Fig.  42, 
or  plan  some  other  way  of  arranging  them  for  drying.  Store  the  ears 
in  a  cool,  dry  place  where  they  are  free  from  mice  and  rats  and  see  that 
they  are  protected  from  grain  moth  and  weevil. 

6.  Testing  seed  corn.  —  Make  several  sawdust-box  and  rag-doll 
testers.  During  the  winter  test  the  seed  that  has  been  gathered  in  the 
fall.  Compare  the  results  of  both  testers  by  testing  lots  of  the  same 
seed  in  both.  Make  a  record  of  the  time  necessary  to  test  the  corn 
and  compute  the  cost,  figuring  the  usual  price  paid  for  farm  labor  in 
your  vicinity. 

7.  Judging  corn.  —  When  scoring  corn  a  certain  standard  of  per- 
fection is  set  up  as  an  ideal  and  the  ear  or  exhibit  is  selected  according 
to  this  standard.  Beginners  usually  make  use  of  a  score-card,  but  after 
they  have  had  some  experience,  the  score-card  is  no  longer  used,  the  ear 
or  sample  being  judged  without  it.     A  score-card  may  be  defined  as  a 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  127 

description  of  an  ideal  ear  with  the  various  qualities  arranged  in  logical 
order  and  given  numerical  ratings,  the  total  of  which  is  one  hundred. 
Score-cards  are  useful  in  making  a  logical  study  of  the  different  quali- 
ties and  in  emphasizing  their  relative  importance.  The  ratings  are 
arbitrary  and,  as  different  persons  will  not  give  the  same  weight  to  all 
of  the  different  qualities,  the  cards  are  not  uniform.  However,  they- 
serve  their  purpose  when  they  teach  the  pupils  to  observe  closely  the 
various  qualities  and  point  out  their  relative  importance.  Many  of  the 
state  agricultural  colleges  furnish  score-cards  to  teachers  through  their 
extension  departments.  When  these  can  be  secured  they  should  be 
used,  because  they  are  adapted  especially  to  the  work  in  the  state. 
On  page  128  is  given  a  score-card  from  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  Bulletin  281.  This  is  a  very  good  card  and  can  well  be 
used  in  schools  where  cards  of  local  adaptation  are  not  available. 

Dealers  in  agricultural  laboratory  supplies  furnish  score-cards  at  a 
very  nominal  price  and  often  these  are  purchased  in  quantities  by  school 
authorities  and  used  in  the  classes. 

When  scoring  a  sample,  a  cut,  or  deduction,  should  be  made  for  each 
ear  deficient  in  each  quality  listed  in  the  score-card.  Suppose  a  ten- 
ear  sample  is  to  be  judged  and  ten  points  is  given  for  a  quality,  a  cut 
of  one  point  should  be  made  for  each  ear  badly  deficient  in  this  quality. 
If  five  points  is  given  for  a  quality,  a  cut  of  one-half  a  point  is  made. 
If  twenty-five  points  is  given,  a  cut  of  two  and  one-half  points  is  made. 
In  case  the  ear  is  only  slightly  deficient  in  a  quality,  the  extreme  cut  is 
not  made,  the  ears  being  cut  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  scorer. 

The  general  practice  in  scoring  a  sample  is  for  the  scorer  to  draw 
toward  him  ears  that  require  no  cut  and  push  away  from  him  those 
that  need  the  full  cut.  Thus  three  classes  are  made  and  it  is  easy  then 
to  make  a  fair  estimate  of  the  amount  to  cut  the  whole  sample. 

Using  the  score-card,  practice  scoring  and  judging  as  follows.  With 
a  ten-ear  exhibit  before  you,  select  the  ear  that  is  best  in  maturity 
and  seed  condition.  Select  the  ear  that  is  poorest  in  this  respect. 
Arrange  the  ears  of  the  samples  in  order,  one,  two,  three,  and  so  on, 
with  only  this  quality  considered.  Proceed  in  like  manner  with  all  the 
other  points  on  the  score-card.  Next,  score  the  sample,  taking  into 
consideration  all  the  points.  Follow  this  by  scoring  three  samples 
and  arranging  them  in  order  according  to  the  total  scores.  After  hav- 
ing had  experience  in  scoring  several  samples,  arrange  three  samples 
and  place  them  in  order  by  comparing  them  without  using  the  score- 
card.  Next,  score  these  same  samples  and  compare  with  your  previous 
placing.  Continue  this  comparative  judging  until  you  can  place  sam- 
ples in  order  accurately  without  using  the  score-card. 


128 


Effective  Farming 


Score-card  for  Corn 
Variety Exhibit  No. 


Points 


Maturity  and  seed  condition 

To  be  of  value  for  grain,  corn  must  mature 
and  produce  good,  hard  seed. 

Uniformity 

Ears  should  be  alike  in  shape,  size,  color, 
indentation,  and  size  of  kernel. 

Kernels 

Flat  side,  sUghtly  wedge-shaped  with  large, 
smooth  germ.  Edge,  with  parallel  sides 
and  of  medium  thickness.     Not  chaffy. 

Weight  of  ear 

Dent  varieties,  as  usually  planted,  produce 
only  one  ear  per  stalk,  hence  yield  per 
acre  depends  largely  upon  weight  of 
shelled  corn  per  ear. 

Length  and  proportion 

Varies  with  locality  and  variety.  Experi- 
ments show  that  a  continued  selection 
of  short,  thick  ears  reduces  the  yield. 

Butts 

The  base  of  the  ear  should  be  covered  with 
even-sized  kernels  in  straight  rows  which 
are  a  continuation  of  those  at  the  center 
of  the  ear.  The  shank  should  be  large 
enough  to  support  the  ear  and  no  larger. 

Tips 

Should  be  covered  with  kernels  of  the  same 
depth  and  be  in  rows  which  are  a  con- 
tinuation of  those  at  the  center  of  the  ear. 

Space  between  rows 

Should  be  very  slight  and  in  straight  lines. 

Color 

The  color  of  both  grain  and  cobs  should 
be  uniform,  showing  trueness  to  type  or 
strain. 

Total 


PebfecTi  Scorer's  Corrected 


25 
15 
15 

15 
10 


5 
5 

100 


Remarks 

Name  of  scorer 


Date 


Indian  Corn,  or  Maize  129 

8.  Testing  the  corn-planter.  —  In  the  spring  just  before  corn  plant- 
ing time,  visit  several  farms  and  test  the  corn-planters  found  there,  as 
described  on  a  previous  page. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  398- 
421.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Montgomery,  E.  G.,  Productive  Farm  Crops.     The  Lippincott  Co. 

Montgomery,  E.  G.,  The  Corn  Crops.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Livingston,  George,  Field  Crop  Production.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Book  of  Corn.     Orange  Judd  Co. 

Harris  and  Stewart,  Principles  of  Agronomy.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Nolan,  A.  W.,  and  Green,  J.  H.,  Corn  Growing.     Row,  Peterson  &  Co. 

Davis,  K.  C,  Productive  Plant  Husbandry.     J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 

Wilson,  A.  D.,  and  Warburton,  C.  W.,  Field  Crops.  Webb  Publishing 
Co. 

McCall,  A.  G.,  Studies  of  Crops.     Wiley  and  Sons. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  229,  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  537,  How  to  Grow  an  Acre  of  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  415,  Seed  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  253,  The  Germination  of  Seed  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  414,  Corn  Cultivation. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  313,  Harvesting  and  Storing  of  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  773,  Corn  Growing  under  Droughty  Conditions. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  553,  Pop  Corn  for  the  Home. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  554,  Pop  Corn  for  Market. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  617,  School  Lessons  on  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  400,  A  More  Profitable  Corn-planting  Method. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  729,  Corn  Culture  in  Southeastern  States. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  739,  Cutworms  and  their  Control  in  Corn  and  Other 
Cereal  Crops. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  773,  Corn  Growing  under  Droughty  Conditions. 

Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ames,  Iowa.  Bulletin  135, 
The  Germination  Test  of  Seed  Corn. 

Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Urbana,  111.  Bulletin  87, 
The  Structure  of  the  Corn  Kernel  and  the  Composition  of  its  Differ- 
ent Parts, 


CHAPTER   VII 

SMALL   GRAINS 

Wheat 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  wheat. 
Kinds  of  wheat. 

Spelt  group,  durum  wheat  group,  bread  wheat  group. 
Uses  of  wheat. 
Soils  for  wheat. 
Seeding  of  wheat. 

Rate  of  seeding. 

Methods  of  seeding. 

Depth  of  planting. 
Harvesting  of  wheat. 
Weeds  of  wheat  fields. 
Insects  of  wheat  fields. 

Hessian  fly,  chinch-bug. 
Fungous  diseases  of  wheat. 

Loose  smut,  stinking  smut,  rust,  scab. 

Oats 

Distribution,  yields,  and  characteristics  of  oats. 

Kinds  of  oats. 

Uses  of  oats. 

Climate  and  soils  for  oats. 

Preparing  the  ground  for  oats. 

Planting  the  seed. 

Harvesting  of  oats. 

Enemies  of  oats. 

Rye 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  rye. 

Uses  of  rye. 

Climate  and  soils  for  rye. 

130 


Small  Grains  131 

Planting  the  seed. 
Harvesting  of  rye. 
Enemies  of  rye. 

Barley 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  barley. 

Uses  of  barley. 

Climate  and  soils  for  barley. 

Planting  the  seed. 

Harvesting  of  barley. 

Enemies  of  barley. 

Rice 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  rice. 

Uses  of  rice. 

Climate  and  soils  for  rice. 

Cultural  methods. 

Buckwheat 

Distribution  and  characteristics  of  buckwheat. 
Cultural  methods. 

The  staple  small  grain  is  wheat,  the  flour  of  which  is  baked 
into  the  many  kinds  of  bread  so  much  prized  by  the  Caucasian 
races.  Vast  areas  of  North  America  are  devoted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  this  cereal  and  many  machines  have  been  devised  to 
aid  in  its  culture  and  harvesting.  The  milling  of  wheat  into 
flour  is  itself  a  large  industry  and  gives  employment  to  thou- 
sands of  persons.  In  many  parts  oats  is  an  important  crop. 
It  is  the  most  used  of  any  of  the  grains  as  feed  for  horses,  and 
in  the  form  of  oat-meal  is  an  important  article  of  human  food. 
Rye  is  not  extensively  grown  in  the  United  States,  but  in  some 
regions  it  is  an  important  crop.  The  grain  is  used  chiefly  as 
live-stock  feed,  although  some  of  it  is  milled  into  flour  for  human 
consumption.  Barley  is  the  malt-producing  grain.  As  will 
be  learned  later,  about  half  the  barley  grown  in  the  United 
States  has  been  used  for  the  making  of  beer  and  other  malt 
beverages.  As  a  live-stock  feed,  barley  has  considerable  value 
and  in  some  regions  is  fed  extensively.  Rice  in  Asia  feeds  mil- 
lions of  people,  but  its  production  in  the  United  States  is  lim- 


132  Effective  Farming 

ited  to  areas  in  some  of  the  Southern  States  and  in  CaHfornia. 
It  is  an  important  article  of  food  and  its  use  by  American  peo- 
ple is  increasing.  With  the  extensive  export  of  wheat  to  feed 
European  peoples  at  war,  the  other  grains  are  assuming  addi- 
tional importance  as  human  food. 

WHEAT 

59.  Distribution  and  characteristics  of  wheat.  —  Nearly 
all  countries  having  a  temperate  climate  produce  wheat. 
The  United  States,  Russia,  France,  and  India  are  the  largest 
producers.  This  cereal  is  also  grown  extensively  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  Italy,  Argentina,  Germany,  and  Canada.  In  the 
United  States  the  five  leading  wheat  states  are  North  Dakota, 
Minnesota,  Kansas,  South  Dakota,  and  Nebraska. 

Wheat  is  an  annual  belonging  to  the  grass  family.  The 
spikelets  are  arranged  alternately  on  the  rachis,  or  top  of  the 
stem,  forming  a  spike.  The  culm  in  most  varieties  is  hollow 
except  at  the  nodes.  In  a  very  few  varieties,  however,  the 
stem  is  partly  filled  with  pith.  The  length  of  stem  varies 
considerably  in  different  varieties  and  when  the  crop  is  grown  on 
various  soils.  Some  varieties  have  stems  that  reach  a  height 
of  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet,  while  others  on  the  same  soil 
will  grow  to  be  four  or  five  feet  tall.  Wheat  tillers  freely, 
often  one  seed  producing  a  dozen  or  more  stalks.  The  leaves 
are  rather  short  and  narrow  and  vary  in  different  varieties  in 
length,  width,  smoothness,  and  prominence  of  veins.  The 
leaf -sheath  is  hairy  as  in  rye;  whereas  in  barley  and  oats  it 
is  smooth.  As  the  plant  matures  the  leaves  wither  and  when 
the  seeds  are  ripening  only  the  top  of  the  stem  and  the  upper 
leaf  are  green.  The  roots  are  fibrous  and  are  found  mostly 
in  the  upper  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  of  soil.  When  a  kernel 
of  wheat  sprouts  in  the  ground,  three  temporary  roots  branch 
from  the  hypocotyl  and  make  up  the  temporary  root  system. 
After  the  plumule  is  above  the  ground,  permanent  roots  start 
from  a  node  of  the  stem.     The  temporary  roots  soon  wither 


Small  Grains 


133 


and  the  plant  obtains  its  nourishment  wholly  from  the  per- 
manent roots.  Deep  planting  does  not  mean  deep  rooting, 
because  the  permanent  roots  form  about  an  inch  below  the 
surface  no  matter  how  deeply  the  temporary  roots,  which  come 
direct  from  the  seed,   develop. 

The  grains  of  wheat  are  oblong  with  a  deep  groove  on  one 
side  and  a  brush  of  short  hairs  at  the  tip.  Variation  in  size, 
shape,  color,  and  hard- 
ness is  found  in  different 
varieties.  The  endo- 
sperm makes  up  about 
85  per  cent  of  the  kernel 
and  most  of  this  enters 
into  flour.  The  outside 
covering  of  the  kernel 
consists  of  three  layers 
which  make  up  the  bran. 
This  is  about  5  per  cent 
of  the  kernel  and  is 
used  chiefly  as  live-stock 
feed. 

60.  Kinds  of  wheat. 
— According  to  the  time 
of  year  it  grows,  wheat 
is  known  either  as  winter 
or  as  spring.  Seed  of 
winter  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall  and  harvested  early  the 
next  summer  and  seed  of  spring  wheat  is  planted  in  the  spring 
and  harvested  the  same  year. 

Wheat  may  also  be  classified  as  beardless  and  bearded. 
Figs.  45  and  46  show  heads  of  both  classes. 

Botanically  wheat  may  be  divided  into  eight  species  and 
sub-species,  known  as  einkorn,  emmer,  spelt,  poulard,  durum, 
poUsh,  common,  and  club.  These  may  be  grouped  as  fol- 
lows: 


ii 

'i 

i 

-il 

mR|    s^^ 

M 

^  m 

■  &^ 

K^M^'^ 

tv 

i 

^•^,*#.;^j 

wM^ 

M 

W 

t^l 

K'>'^P^ 

1^ 

&^ 

mm 

^H   V,    -J^^^L^   J%M 

^^y 

V  ^,  / 

'"iltititiiir          %(# 

1) 

r 

« 

1 

Tf 

^  m 

< 

4 

j 

i  ^ 

Fig.  45.  —  Heads  of  beardless  winter  wheat. 
1,  Fultz  ;  2,  Leap  prolific  ;  3,  purple  straw ; 
4,  Poole ;  5,  mealy ;  6,  Dawson  golden  chaff. 


134 


Effective  Farming 


Spelt  group.  —  Einkorn,  emmer,  spelt.  Grain  inclosed  in 
glumes,  a  portion  of  which  adheres  to  grains  after  threshing. 
Grains  make  poor  flour.  Not  extensively  cultivated.  Ein- 
korn is  thought  to  be  one  of  the  first  of  the  cultivated  types. 
It  is  not  grown  in  America.  Emmer  is  grown  rather  exten- 
sively in  the  northern  part  of  the  Great  Plains  region.  It  is 
used  largely  as  a  stock  food.     Spelt  is  not  grown  in  the  United 

States.     (See  Fig.  47.) 

Durum  wheat  group. 
—  Poulard,  durum,  and 
polish  wheats.  Grains 
free  when  threshed. 
Used  principally  in  the 
manufacture  of  maca- 
roni and  other  paste 
foods.  Adapted  espe- 
cially to  dry  climates. 
Durum  is  the  principal 
wheat  of  this  group. 
Introduced  into  the 
United  States  by  the 
Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  now  grown  ex- 

FiG.  46.  — Heads    of    bearded    winter  wneat.     tensively    in   the   Great 
1,    Mediterranean;    2,   Virginia;     3,   winter     Plains  region, 
fife  ;  4,  early  Genesee  giant.  * 

Bread  wheat  group. 
—  Common  and  club  wheat.  Grains  free  when  threshed. 
Common  wheat,  the  kind  most  extensively  grown,  is  used 
principally  for  making  flour.  Figures  45  and  46  show  common 
wheats.  Club  wheat  has  a  short  compact  head  and  is  espe- 
cially well  adapted  to  conditions  in  the  Pacific  Coast  region, 
where  it  is  grown  extensively.  Like  common  wheat,  it  is  used 
for  making  flour.  The  bread  wheats  are  grouped  commercially 
according  to  color,  hardness,  and  time  of  growth,  as  soft  wheat, 
soft  red,  medium  red,  hard  winter,  and  hard  spring   wheats. 


Small  Grains 


135 


As  a  general  rule,  the  soft   wheats   are   light   and    the   hard 
wheats  are  dark  in  color. 

61.  Uses  of  wheat.  —  By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  wheat 
grown  in  the  world  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  flour,  which 
is  made  into  bread  and  paste  foods,  like  macaroni.  Certain 
prepared  breakfast  foods  are  made  from  wheat  and  a  small 
quantity  is  fed  to  live-stock,  but  usually  this  latter  is  of  poor 


Fig.  47. — Heads  of  German  ernmer,  spelt,  and  einkorn.  1,  black  winter  emmer ; 
2,  white  beardless  spelt ;  3,  black  winter  emmer ;  4,  black  bearded  spelt ; 
5,  double  einkorn  ;  6,  spring  emmer. 

quality  and  not  suitable  for  flour.  In  the  milling  of  flour, 
many  by-products  result  that  are  employed  chiefly  as  live- 
stock feeds.  The  straw  is  used  as  roughage  feed  and  bedding 
for  live-stock. 

62.  Soils  for  wheat.  —  Wheat  has  been  grown  successfully 
on  most  kinds  of  soil.  It  is  important  to  have  the  soil  in  good 
tilth.  In  the  case  of  heavy  soils,  more  work  is  necessary  to 
bring  them  into  good  condition  than  with  loamy  soils,  but  if 
heavy  soils  are  well  tilled  they  can  be  made  to  grow  good  crops 
of  wheat.     Sandy  soils  for  this  crop  must  be  well  supplied  with 


136 


Effective  Farming 


humus.  The  organic  matter  in  the  soil  must  be  in  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  decay  than  for  corn.  In  many  rotations 
wheat  follows  corn,  which  in  turn  has  followed  sod  that  has 
been  manured.  In  these  rotations  the  manure  and  sod  are 
well  decayed  by  the  time  the  wheat  is  planted.  Commercial 
fertilizer  is  often  used  profitably  for  wheat,  especially  in  the 
older  farming  regions ;  the  plants  seem  to  respond  readily 
to  the  available  food  in  the  fertihzer. 


Fig.  48.  —  Grain-drill. 

63.  Seeding  of  wheat.  —  Winter  wheat  should  be  sown  early 
enough  in  the  fall  to  provide  for  a  good  root  development  be- 
fore freezing  occurs.  The  general  rule  in  northern  sections  is 
to  plant  six  or  eight  weeks  before  the  freezing  weather  of  winter 
usually  begins.  Where  the  Hessian  fly  is  prevalent,  especially 
in  the  South,  the  seeding  is  often  delayed  until  after  the  first 
killing  frost.  (See  paragraph  66.)  Spring  planting  is  best 
done  as  early  as  the  conditions  of  soil  and  weather  will  war- 
rant, because  the  plants  make  their  most  satisfactory  growth 
in  the  cool  weather. 

Rate  of  seeding.  —  The  rate  of  seeding  varies  somewhat  with 


Small  Grains 


137 


the  type  of  soil,  more  seed 
being  required  on  heavy 
soils  than  on  light  ones. 
This  is  because  the  plants 
tend  to  tiller  more  freely 
on  light  soils  and  thus 
make  more  stalks.  The 
average  seeding  is  six  pecks 
to  the  acre,  but  often  eight 
pecks  are  used.  In  the 
dry-farming  sections  of  the 
West,  only  three  to  four 
pecks  are  recommended, 
as  the  soil  in  these  parts 
is  warm  and  loose  and  the 
plants  tiller  freely;  thin 
sowing  also  gives  large 
plants  that  stand  the  dry 
climate  better  than  smaller 
ones. 

Methods  of  seeding.  — 
Wheat  is  often  sown  broad- 
cast, but  better  results  are 
obtained  by  planting  with 
drills.  A  more  even  stand 
can  thus  be  secured,  as 
the  seeds  are  all  covered 
to  about  the  same  depth. 
Another  advantage  is  that 
they  are  planted  in  shallow 
furrows  and  are  not  so 
likely  to  be  heaved  out 
of  the  ground  by  frost. 
With  the  drill,  fertilizer 
and  grass  seed  can  be  sown 


138 


Effective  Farming 


Small  Grains 


139 


at  the  time  of  wheat  planting.     Figure  48  shows  a  common  type 
of  grain-drill.     (See  paragraph  226.) 

Depth  of  planting.  —  Deep  planting  is  not  advised  for  wheat ; 
from  one  to  two  inches  is  enough.  As  explained  previously, 
the  plants  put  out  permanent  roots  near  the  surface  no  matter 
how  deep  the  seed  is  planted.     In  soils  of  poor  tilth,  however, 


Fig.  51.  —  Self-rake  reaper. 


somewhat  deeper  seeding  is  necessary  than  in  well  prepared 
soils,  because  in  the  former  the  moisture  will  be  insufficient 
in  the  surface  layer  to  germinate  the  seed. 

64.  Harvesting  of  wheat.  —  In  most  sections  wheat  is  cut 
with  binders  (Fig.  49).  These  implements  cut  the  mature 
plants,  bind  them  into  bundles,  and  deposit  the  bundles  in 
piles  on  the  ground.  After  the  grain  has  been  cut  men  follow 
through  the  fields  and  place  the  bundles  in  shocks  (Fig.  50). 
In  hilly  regions  an  implement  known  as  the  self-rake  reaper 
(Fig.  51)  is  often  employed  for  cutting  wheat.     Reapers  cut 


140  Effective  Farming 

the  grain  and  deposit  it  in  piles,  but  do  not  bind  it  in  bundles. 
It  is  afterwards  bound  by  hand.  Before  binders  were  per- 
fected, reapers  were  much  used  in  all  sections,  but  in  recent 
years  they  have  not  often  been  employed,  except  when 
there  is  danger  of  binders  tipping  over  because  of  the  hilly 
ground. 

In  the  West  where  the  grain  is  allowed  to  become  fairly 
ripe  before  it  is  cut  and  where  large  areas  are  planted  to  wheat, 
grain-headers  are  used  extensively  for  cutting  wheat.  These 
machines  remove  the  heads  only,  leaving  the  straw  standing 
in  the  field.  Combined  harvesters  and  threshers  are  also  used 
in  some  parts  of  the  West.  They  cut  the  heads  and  convey 
them  to  a  thresher  that  is  attached  to  the  machine.  The  ripe 
conditions  of  the  grain  and  the  dry  climate  make  the  cutting 
and  threshing  possible  at  one  time. 

Qn  small  areas  or  on  very  hilly  ground,  grain-cradles  are 
sometimes  used  for  cutting  wheat.  A  cradle  is  similar  to  a 
scythe,  but  in  addition  to  the  blade  it  is  provided  with  long 
wooden  fingers  that  carry  the  grain  and  deposit  it  in  swaths. 
The  grain  is  bound  into  bundles  by  hand.  Before  the  advent 
of  harvesting  machines,  cradles  were  used  extensively  for  all 
small  grains. 

Wheat,  except  that  cut  by  the  combined  harvester  and 
thresher,  is  usually  threshed  by  machines  that  are  operated 
by  horse  power,  steam,  or  gas  engines.  The  bundles  or  heads 
of  grain  are  run  through  the  machine  which  removes  the  grain 
from  the  straw  and  chaff.  The  grain  comes  out  of  one  opening 
and  is  measured  automatically.  The  straw  and  chaff  come 
out  of  another  opening ;  the  straw  is  usually  stacked  and  saved 
for  stock  feed  or  bedding.  (See  paragraph  229.)  A  typical 
threshing  scene  is  pictured  in  Fig.  52. 

In  some  sections  the  grain  is  threshed  direct  from  the  shocks  ; 
in  others  it  is  stacked  or  placed  in  a  mow  and  threshed  later. 
If  the  weather  is  dry  and  the  grain  can  be  threshed  soon, 
threshing  from  the  shock  secures  the  grain  in  good  condition. 


Small  Grains 


141 


142  Effective  Farming 

However,  if  the  grain  becomes  wet  in  the  shock,  the  yield  of 
good  produce  will  be  lessened.  The  grain  must  go  through  a 
sweat,  which  may  take  place  in  the  shock,  stack,  or  mow,  or  in 
the  bin  after  the  grain  is  threshed.  The  sweating  causes  heat 
and  if  the  heat  becomes  too  intense  the  grain  will  char,  or 
blacken,  thus  destroying  its  quality.  If  the  grain  is  placed 
in  stack  or  mow  when  it  is  wet  or  if  many  green  weeds  are 
bound  with  it,  excessive  heating  may  occur. 

Threshed  grain  may  be  stored  in  any  dry  bin.  If  the 
grain  in  bins  becomes  very  hot,  due  to  sweating,  it  should 
be  spread  out  to  prevent  charring.  In  the  West,  on  account 
of  the  dry  climate,  grain  may  be  safely  stored  in  sacks  in  the 
field. 

65.  Weeds  of  wheat  fields.  —  On  account  of  the  seeds  get- 
ting into  the  threshed  grain  and  later  into  the  flour,  weeds  in 
wheat  fields  are  especially  undesirable.  Among  the  trouble- 
some weeds  are  chess,  or  cheat,  darnel,  cockle,  wild  garlic, 
pigeon-weed,  and  wild  mustard.  Chess  and  darnel  seed  can  be 
removed  from  seed  wheat  by  means  of  a  fanning-mill.  Cockle 
seed  are  about  the  same  size  and  weight  as  wheat  grains  and 
for  this  reason  are  not  readily  separated  by  a  fanning  mill. 
About  the  only  way  to  combat  this  weed  is  to  pass  through  the 
field  and  pull  up  the  plants  when  they  are  in  blossom.  The 
flowers  are  pink,  making  the  plants  easily  distinguishable. 
Wild  garlic  and  pigeon-weed  are  combated  by  planting  infested 
areas  in  some  other  crop  for  a  few  seasons.  Wild  mustard 
seed  is  often  found  in  seed  wheat  and,  of  course,  such  seed  should 
not  be  planted.  When  plants  are  found  in  the  field  they  should 
be  pulled  up ;  they  can  be  distinguished  by  their  yellow, 
four-petaled  blossoms.  Spraying  the  fields  with  a  solution  of 
iron  sulfate  has  in  some  instances  been  found  effective  in  com- 
bating mustard.  The  solution  kills  the  mustard  plants,  but 
not  the  wheat.  The  formula  used  is  eighty  pounds  of  iron 
sulfate  to  forty  gallons  of  water.  This  is  spread  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  gallons  to  the  acre. 


Small  Grains  143 

66.  Insects  of  wheat  fields.  —  The  Hessian  fly  and  chinch- 
bug  are  the  most  injurious  insect  pests  to  the  wheat. 

The  Hessian  fly  is  a  blackish  insect  about  one-tenth  inch  in 
length.  The  larvae  eat  the  stems  of  young  wheat  plants,  caus- 
ing them  to  tumble  over.  The  methods  of  controlling  this 
pest  are  summarized  by  F.  M.  Webster  in  Farmers'  Bulletin 
641: 

"  In  the  fall- wheat-growing  sections  sow  the  best  of  seed 
in  thoroughly  prepared,  fertile  soil  after  the  major  portion  of 
the  fall  brood  has  made  its  appearance  and  passed  out  of 
existence,  and,  if  possible,  sow  on  ground  not  devoted  to  wheat 
the  preceding  year. 

''  In  the  spring- wheat  section  late  seeding  will  not  apply.  It 
seems  likely,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  earlier  it  is  sown  in 
spring  the  less  it  will  suffer  from  the  Hessian  fly.  But  good 
seed  and  a  well-prepared,  fertile  soil  are  as  essential  there  as 
elsewhere." 

The  chinch-bug  hibernates  during  the  winter  in  grass  or 
under  piles  of  weeds,  trash,  and  rubbish  and  in  the  spring  the 
females  fly  to  wheat  fields  to  lay  eggs  on  the  base  of  the  plants. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  about  twenty  days  and  the  larvae  feed  on 
the  wheat.  They  live  on  the  wheat  until  it  is  harvested,  when 
they  migrate  to  corn  or  oats.  The  adults  have  wings,  but 
they  travel  on  foot  from  the  wheat  fields.  This  fact  makes  it 
possible  to  use  barriers,  as  explained  elsewhere,  in  protecting 
the  corn  or  the  oat  fields.  The  insects  that  reach  these  fields 
lay  eggs  there  and  a  second  brood  hatches.  The  adults  of 
this  brood  fly  to  grass  land  and  rubbish  piles  and  remain  there 
during  the  winter.  The  control  of  the  pest  in  wheat  fields  is 
accomplished  by  burning  rubbish  piles  early  in  the  spring  be- 
fore the  adults  lay  their  eggs. 

67.  Fungous  diseases  of  wheat.  —  Smuts,  rusts,  and  scab 
are  fungous  diseases  that  attack  wheat. 

Smut.  —  Two  kinds,  loose  smut  and  stinking  smut,  are  de- 
structive to  wheat  (Figs.  53  and  54).     Loose  smut  destroys 


144 


Effective  Farming 


Fig.  53.  —  Loose  smut  of  wheat.    Comparison  of  sound  head  and  smutted  heads 
at  four  stages  of  development. 


Small  Grains 


145 


both  grains  and  glumes  and  at  harvest  time  only  the  naked 
stem  of  the  plant  remains,  the  spores  having  been  scattered 
about  the  field.  Figure  53  shows  this  condition  very  plainly. 
The  spores  mature  when  the  grain  is  in  blossom.  They  are 
scattered  about  the 
field  and  if  they 
lodge  on  a  blossom- 
ing head  of  wheat 
they  germinate  and 
penetrate  to  the 
inside  of  the  grain. 
Stinking  smut  de- 
stroys only  the 
kernel,  the  glumes 
still  remaining 
around  the  .spores. 
The  outside  of 
smutted  grain  is 
intact,  but  the  in- 
side, instead  of  a 
wheat  grain,  is  a 
mass  of  spores.  The 
smut  balls  often 
found  in  threshed 
grain  are  masses  of 
stinking  smut,  not 
loose  smut.  The 
smut  balls  are  shown 
in  Fig.  54.  When  the  grain  is  threshed,  the  spores  are  scat- 
tered. They  adhere  to  the  outside  of  the  grain  of  wheat,  es- 
pecially in  the  crease  or  among  the  tuft  of  hairs  at  the  upper 
end. 

The  fact  that  the  spores  of  loose  smut  are  on  the  inside  of 
the  grain  and  those  of  stinking  smut  are  on  the  outside  makes 
the  treatment  for  the  two  diseases  different.     It  has  been  found 


Fig.  54.  —  Stinking  smut  of  wheat.  Comparison  of 
sound  head  and  sound  kernels  with  smutted  head 
and  smut  balls. 


146  Effective  Farming 

that  the  spores  of  loose  smut  are  killed  by  a  temperature  of 
133°  F.,  which  is  four  w  five  degrees  lower  than  will  destroy  the 
germ  of  the  wheat.  To  treat  the  seed  place  the  grain  in  a 
sack  and  soak  it,  sack  and  all,  in  cold  water  for  six  hours  to 
soften  it.  Then  have  ready  a  tub  of  water  at  133°  F.  and 
place  the  sack  in  the  water,  leaving  it  there  for  five  minutes. 
Remove  the  sack,  empty  the  grain,  and  spread  out  to  dry. 
Some  of  the  germs  of  wheat  may  be  injured  by  the  high  tem- 
perature and  to  counteract  this  loss  a  little  more  seed  should 
be  sown. 

What  is  known  as  the  formalin  treatment  is  used  to  combat 
the  stinking  smut  of  wheat.  The  formalin,  which  should  be  of 
40  per  cent  strength,  can  be  purchased  at  a  drug  store.  Dis- 
solve at  the  rate  of  one  pound,  or  one  pint,  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water  and  use  one  gallon  of  the  solution  for  each  bushel  of 
wheat.  Spread  the  wheat  in  a  long  pile  on  a  tight,  smooth 
floor  and  sprinkle  the  solution  over  the  pile.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  one  person  shovel  the  pile  over  while  another  uses  the 
sprinkling  can.  After  the  pile  is  wet  cover  it  with  bags  or 
blankets  to  keep  the  fumes  of  the  formalin  in  the  wheat  and 
allow  it  to  remain  covered  several  hours.  Next  spread  the 
grain  out  to  dry  and  when  dry  be  careful  to  place  it  in  clean 
bags.  Turn  the  bags  inside  out  and  sprinkle  some  of  the 
formalin  solution  on  them  to  kill  any  spores  that  may  be  in 
the  bags.  When  ready  to  plant  the  grain,  sprinkle  the  seeder- 
box  with  the  formalin  solution  to  kill  any  germs  that  may  be 
there. 

Rusts  are  responsible  for  considerable  damage  to  wheat, 
especially  in  humid  climates.  They  are  more  prevalent  if  the 
weather  is  warm  and  moist  than  if  it  is  dry.  Two  kinds  are 
destructive  to  wheat  —  the  leaf  rust  and  the  stem  rust.  These 
diseases  may  be  known  by  the  rusty  brown  or  blackish  spores 
that  attack  the  plants  during  growth.  No  remedy  is  available, 
but  some  varieties  of  wheat  are  more  rust-resistant  than 
others;    consequently,  as  a  preventive  measure,  it  is  well  to 


Small  Grains  147 

plant  a  rust-resistant  variety.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  or  the  experiment  station  of  each  state  can 
give  advice  as  to  varieties  for  each  particular  region. 

Wheat  scab  attacks  the  head  of  the  grain.  It  is  known  by  a 
reddish  spot  found  at  the  base  of  the  diseased  glumes.  Scab 
does  not  usually  cause  great  loss,  although  at  times  much 
shriveled  grain  results  from  the  disease.  There  is  no  remedy, 
but,  of  course,  seed  from  an  infested  field  should  not  be  planted. 

OATS 

68.    Distribution,  yields,   and  characteristics  of  oats.  —  The 

principal  oat-producing  countries  in  order  of  production  are  : 
United  States,  Russia,  Germany,  France,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  United  States  the  Central  and 
North  Central  States  are  the  largest  producers.  Iowa  and 
Illinois  grow  about  h  fourth  of  the  oats  of  the  country.  Other 
states  having  large  oat-producing  areas  are  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Pennsylvania,  Texas,  and  Missouri.  Oats 
are  grown  in  many  of  the  Southern  States  and,  although  the 
acreage  is  not  large,  it  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  average 
yield  of  oats  in  the  different  countries  varies  considerably. 
From  1900  to  1909  the  yields  in  bushels  were  as  follows : 
Germany  50.7;  United  Kingdom  44.3;  France  31.6;  Austria- 
Hungary  30.2;  United  States  29.3;  Russia  20.  The  yield 
in  the  United  States  is  very  low.  With  more  attention  given 
to  the  farming  of  oats,  the  average  yield  in  this  country  could 
easily  be  doubled. 

The  plant  is  an  annual  with  jointed  stem,  blade-like  leaves, 
and  a  fibrous  root  system.  The  height  of  stem  varies  from 
two  to  five  feet,  averaging  about  three  feet.  The  leaves  are 
somewhat  broader  than  those  of  wheat.  The  grain-bearing 
portion  is  a  panicle  which  consists  of  a  central  stem,  along 
which  are  nodes  from  which  spring  single  branches  that  bear 
the  spikelets  (Fig.  55). 


148 


Effective  Farming 


69.  Kinds  of  oats.  —  Oats  are  classified  as  spreading  and 
side  oats.  In  the  former  the  branches  bearing  the  spikelets 
are  distributed  on  all  sides  of  the  stem  ;  in  the  latter  the  branches 
are  all  on  one  side  (Fig.  55).     Oats  are  grouped  as  winter  and 

as  spring,  depend- 
ing on  the  time  of 
year  grown.  They 
are  also  classified 
as  early  and  as  late 
varieties,  according 
to  the  length  of  time 
they  require  for  de- 
velopment, not  ac- 
cording to  the  time 
they  are  planted. 
The  usual  variation 
of  the  growing  sea- 
son ranges  from  90 
to  120  days.  As  to 
color,  oats  are  classi- 
fied as  white,  black, 
red,  yellow,  and 
gray. 

70.  Uses  of  oats. 
—  The  grain  is  par- 
ticularly useful  for 
horses  and  is  also 
fed  to  some  extent 
to  sheep,  cows,  and 


Spreading  oats  and  side  oats. 


hogs.  The  straw  makes  good  roughage  and  bedding  for  live-stock. 
The  plants  are  sometimes  cut  for  hay  and  when  grown  with  field 
peas  are  good  for  soiling  purposes.  Oats  make  a  satisfactory 
temporary  pasture.  In  the  form  of  rolled  oats,  the  grain  is  used 
extensively  for  human  food.  The  .best  grades  only  are  desirable 
for  this  purpose  and  such  grades  bring  a  good  price  on  the  market. 


Small  Grains  149 

71.  Climate  and  soils  for  oats.  —  A  cool,  moist  climate  is 
most  desirable  for  oats.  In  the  United  States  they  make  their 
best  yields  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  However, 
they  are  grown  successfully  in  the  South,  although  the  yield 
and  bushel  weight  is  somewhat  less  than  in  the  North.  Only 
rust-proof  varieties  should  be  planted  in  the  South. 

Loam  and  clay  soils  that  are  not  too  heavy  usually  produce 
better  crops  than  sandy  loams,  because  of  their  greater  water- 
holding  capacity,  but  sandy  soils  containing  abundant  plant- 
food  and  having  fairly  stiff  subsoils  can  be  made  to  produce 
good  oats.  Heavy  soils  are  too  cold  for  oats  and  do  not  pro- 
duce good  crops.  Because  of  their  tendency  to  lodge,  oats 
should  not  be  grown  on  exceedingly  rich  soil. 

72.  Preparing  the  ground  for  oats.  —  Less  preparation  is 
given  to  the  ground  for  oats  than  for  any  of  the  other  cereals. 
In  the  corn-belt  states  this  is  due  to  the  desire  of  the  farmers 
to  get  the  crops  planted  early.  Oats,  being  hardy,  seem  to 
stand  this  treatment  better  than  other  cereals.  Often  the 
ground  receives  no  preparation  before  the  oats  are  planted. 
Some  farmers  sow  the  oats  broadcast  and  cover  them  by  means 
of  a  disk.  Others  use  a  disk  drill  to  plant  the  seeds.  Still 
others  go  over  the  ground  with  a  disk  or  harrow  and  level  it 
before  planting  the  grain.  At  times  the  land  is  plowed  and 
harrowed  before  the  seed  is  sown.  The  best  method  to  follow 
varies  with  conditions.  If  the  ground  is  very  weedy,  plowing 
or  disking  may  be  profitable ;  in  other  cases  the  difference  in 
yield  may  not  pay  for  the  extra  cost  of  preparation.  Expe- 
rience in  a  particular  region  is  the  best  guide,  and  often  it  will 
pay  farmers  to  experiment  on  their  own  fields  to  find  out  which 
method  seems  to  give  the  greatest  net  profits.  In  the  South 
good  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  is  profitable ;  plowing  and 
disking  the  land  to  make  the  soil  of  good  tilth  before  the  seed- 
ing has  given  good  results. 

73.  Planting  the  seed.  —  Oats  are  often  broadcasted  and 
covered  by  means  of  a  disk  or  a  spike-tooth  harrow,  but  better 


150  Effective  Farming 

results  are  obtained  by  seeding  them  with  a  grain  drill,  as  there 
is  likely  to  be  a  more  uniform  stand  and  a  saving  of  seed. 

What  is  known  as  the  open-furrow  method  of  planting  oats 
is  used  in  some  sections  of  the  South  to  prevent  winter-killing 
of  the  plants.  One  practice  consists  in  sowing  the  seeds  in 
the  bottom  of  furrows  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart 
made  by  a  single  shovel  plow.  A  one-horse  planter  is  used 
to  drop  the  seed,  which  then  grow  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
where  they  are  protected  from  the  heaving  of  the  ground  which 
so  often  occurs  in  the  South,  especially  on  wet  soils.  Another 
practice  is  to  use  a  special  drill  made  for  sowing  between  rows 
of  standing  crops.  These  implements  plant  three  furrows  at 
a  time  and  are  just  wide  enough  to  go  between  the  cotton 
rows.     The  seed  is  planted  in  the  standing  cotton  in  the  autumn. 

The  average  acre-rate  of  seeding  for  oats  is  eight  or  nine 
pecks,  but  often  as  low  as  six  pecks  or  as  high  as  ten  or  twelve 
pecks  are  sown.  Varieties  with  large  kernels  should  be  sown 
more  thickly  than  those  with  small  kernels.  Oats  tiller  freely 
and  for  this  reason  a  thin  seeding  often  gives  good  results. 

74.  Harvesting  of  oats.  —  Usually  oats  are  cut  with  a  grain- 
binder.  If  the  grain  is  ripe  or  in  the  hard-dough  stage,  the 
bundles  may  be  placed  in  round  shocks.  These  should  be 
capped  to  protect  the  grain  from  the  weather.  If  the  grain  is 
green  or  many  weeds  are  bound  into  the  bundles,  they  should 
be  placed  irt  long  shocks  so  that  air  and  sunshine  can  penetrate. 
The  grain  should  be  dry  when  threshed ;  it  threshes  better 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  heating  and  molding. 

75.  Enemies  of  oats.  —  The  weeds  that  are  the  most  trouble- 
some in  the  oat  fields  are  wild  mustard  and  chess.  The  method 
of  combating  these  in  oats  is  the  same  as  in  wheat.  The 
principal  insect  enemies  of  oats  are  chinch-bugs  and  army- 
worms.  The  method  of  control  of  these  pests  has  been  dis- 
cussed elsewhere.  Rust  attacks  oats  and  in  some  sections 
does  considerable  damage  in  warm  seasons.  Rust-proof  vari- 
eties  of  oats  should  be  used  in  regions  where  rust  is  likely  to 


Small  Grains  151 

be  prevalent.  Two  smuts  attack  oats,  loose  smut  and  covered 
smut.  In  the  former  the  panicles  of  the  plant  become  masses 
of  black  spores.  The  covered  smut  does  not  attack  the  glumes, 
only  the  oat  grains.  These  smuts  are  controlled  by  the  formalin 
treatment  described  for  stinking  smut  of  wheat. 

RYE 

76.  Distribution  and  characteristics  of  rye.  —  Europe  is  the 
principal  rye-producing  country,  supplying  about  nine-tenths 
of  all  the  rye  grown  in  the  world.  North  America  is  second, 
growing  about  one  thirty-eighth  as  much  as  Europe.  Asia 
is  third  and  Australasia  fourth,  each  with  small  quantities 
when  compared  with  Europe.  In  Germany  and  Russia  much 
more  rye  is  produced  than  wheat.  The  United  States  produces 
less  than  3  per  cent  of  the  rye  crop  of  the  world.  The  heaviest 
rye-producing  states  are  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  New  York.  The  bulk  of  the  production  is  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  country. 

Rye  resembles  wheat  in  its  botanical  characters,  is  used  for 
similar  purposes,  and  is  cultivated  in  much  the  same  manner. 
It  grows  somewhat  taller,  the  stems  often  reaching  a  height 
of  six  or  seven  feet  with  the  spike  six  or  seven  inches  long. 
Both  winter  and  spring  varieties  are  grown. 

77.  Uses  of  rye.  —  The  principal  use  of  rye  is  in  the  making 
of  flour  for  bread.  Much  more  rye  bread  is  consumed  in 
Europe  than  in  America.  Rye  is  also  used  in  the  making  of 
whisky  and  the  grain  is  a  valuable  stock  feed.  Green  rye 
is  used  as  a  soiling  crop  and  as  pasture.  Winter  rye  is  one 
of  the  earliest  green  forage  crops  to  be  ready  in  the  spring. 
If  it  is  not  too  ripe  when  cut,  rye  makes  fairly  satisfactory 
hay.  The  straw,  however,  is  not  of  much  use  as  roughage 
for  Hve-stock.  It  makes  excellent  bedding  and  is  used  largely 
in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  paper,  baskets,  matting,  pad- 
ding of  horse  collars,  and  as  packing  material  for  glass- 
ware.    As  a  green-manure   crop,   rye  is  of  considerable  im- 


152  Effective  Farming 

portance,  because  it  will  grow  on  poor  soils  and  make  abundant 
foliage. 

78.  Climate  and  soils  for  rye.  —  Rye  has  a  wide  climatic 
range ;  it  grows  well  in  both  the  northern  and  southern  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  it  can  be  grown  farther  north  than 
wheat.  It  will  grow  on  all  types  of  soils,  if  they  are  well  drained, 
but  does  best  on  light  loams  or  sandy  soils.  It  grows  better  on 
poor  ground  than  other  cereals,  and  for  this  reason  is  often 
selected  for  the  poorest  fields  of  the  farm. 

79.  Planting  the  seed.  —  The  rate  of  seeding  varies  with 
conditions ;  when  used  for  grain  the  usual  acre-rate  is  aVjout 
six  pecks,  and  when  used  as  a  green-manure  or  soiling  crop, 
about  two  bushels.  As  to  the  time  of  seeding,  rye  has  a  wide 
adaptation,  varying  in  different  sections  and  even  in  the  same 
region.  Usually  it  is  seeded  earlier  than  wheat,  but  it  may  be 
sown  much  later. 

80.  Harvesting  of  rye.  —  The  implements  for  harvesting 
rye  are  the  same  as  for  the  other  small  grains.  The  time  of 
harvesting  varies  with  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  crop.  When 
grown  for  grain,  it  is  allowed  to  become  fairly  ripe.  When  the 
straw  is  to  be  sold  for  manufacturing  purposes,  the  plants  are 
cut  very  green.  Properly  cured  it  is  tough  and  of  a  desirable 
color.  The  highest  price  on  the  market  is  secured  if  the  stalks 
in  the  bundles  are  kept  straight ;  in  order  to  remove  the  grain 
and  still  have  the  stalks  straight,  special  rye  threshers  are 
necessary.  In  many  of  these  the  head  of  the  bundle  is  pushed 
into  the  machine  and  the  bundle  held  until  the  grain  has  been 
removed,  after  which  it  is  withdrawn  and  thrown  to  one  side. 

81.  Enemies  of  rye.  —  Rye  is  not  seriously  troubled  by 
insects  and  fungous  pests.  All  the  insects  that  attack  wheat 
also  attack  rye,  but  they  do  less  damage.  Rusts  and  smuts 
do  not  seriously  injure  rye,  but  ergot  is  a  fungous  disease  that 
often  becomes  troublesome.  It  attacks  the  grains  and  causes 
them  to  increase  to  three  or  four  times  their  normal  size  and 
turn  black.     Live-stock,  when  fed  on  rye  affected  by  ergot, 


Small  Grains  153 

are  often  made  sick.  The  use  of  seed  free  from  ergot  is  a  pre- 
ventive measure ;  it  is  also  advisable  to  plant  some  crops 
other  than  rye  for  at  least  three  years  on  land  that  has  grown 
rye  badly  affected  by  ergot. 

BARLEY 

82.  Distribution  and  characteristics  of  barley.  —  The  chief 
barley-producing  countries  are  Russia,  United  States,  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary,  and  Japan.  In  the  United  States 
about  three-fourths  of  the  crop  is  produced  in  California, 
Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  and  North  Dakota. 

Barley  is  similar  to  wheat  in  appearance.  It  has,  however, 
shorter  stalks,  broader  leaves,  and  a  different  structure  of  the 
spike.  The  spikelets  are  inclosed  in  the  hulls,  and  these,  except 
in  a  variety  known  as  hull-less,  cling  to  the  grain  after  it  is 
threshed. 

Two  types  of  barley  are  common  —  the  six-rowed  and  the 
two-rowed.  In  the  six-rowed,  there  are  six  spikelets,  each 
producing  a  kernel,  at  every  joint  along  the  stem,  thus  making 
six  rows  of  grains  up  and  down  the  head.  In  the  two-rowed, 
three  spikelets  are  produced  at  each  joint  as  in  the  six-rowed 
type,  but  only  one  of  the  three  produces  a  kernel.  Thus  there 
are  two  rows  of  grains  along  the  head.  Barleys  are  also  clas- 
sified as  bearded  and  beardless  and  as  winter  and  spring  vari- 
eties. 

83.  Uses  of  barley.  —  About  half  of  the  barley  grown  in  the 
United  States  is  used  for  making  malt,  a  product  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  beer  and  other  malt  liquors.  Barley 
makes  a  desirable  feed  for  live-stock.  In  the  Pacific  Coast 
States  it  is  used  largely  for  horse  feed ;  in  the  Central  States 
it  is  fed  extensively  to  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep.  When  cut 
before  the  beards  become  too  thick,  barley  makes  a  very  good 
hay,  and  it  is  also  frequently  used  as  pasture  for  sheep  and 
swine.  The  grain  is  used  as  human  food  in  the  form  of  pearl 
barley,  barley  meal,  and  barley  flour. 


154  Effective  Farming 

84.  Climate  and  soils  for  barley.  —  Although  it  can  be  grown 
successfully  in  rather  moist  regions,  a  warm,  dry  cUmate  is 
best  for  barley.  The  crop  can  be  produced  successfully, 
however,  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  many 
sections  of  Canada. 

Soils  for  barlej^  must  be  well  drained.  Fertile  loams  produce 
the  crop  profitably,  but  on  poor  soils  the  yield  of  grain  is  low 
and  the  straw  is  short.  In  some  regions  in  which  alkali  is 
prevalent,  barley  seems  to  do  better  than  corn,  oats,  or  wheat. 

85.  Planting  the  seed.  —  Somewhat  better  tilth  of  soil  is 
necessary  for  barley  than  for  oats.  When  it  is  to  be  planted 
in  the  fall,  it  is  usually  advisable  to  plow  the  land  before  seed- 
ing. However,  when  the  crop  is  to  follow  corn  or  potatoes  a 
good  seed-bed  is  often  made  by  disking  and  harrowing  the 
land  instead  of  plowing  it.  When  barley  is  to  be  seeded  in  the 
spring,  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall  and 
work  it  with  a  harrow  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  plowing  is 
delayed  until  the  spring,  it  should  be  done  early  and  a  mellow 
seed-bed  made  before  planting  the  seed. 

Barley  may  be  either  drilled  or  broadcasted,  but  drilUng  is 
preferable,  as  higher  yields  result  and,  in  the  case  of  winter 
barley,  there  is  less  likelihood  of  winter-killing.  About  six 
or  eight  pecks  is  the  usual  acre-rate  of  seeding  when  drilled  and 
about  ten  pecks  when  broadcasted.  In  dry  sections  of  the 
West  a  lower  rate,  from  three  to  four  pecks,  gives  better  results. 
Spring-seeded  barley  is  usually  planted  a  Uttle  later  than  oats. 
Winter  barley  in  the  North  is  usually  planted  in  September  or 
the  first  part  of  October.  In  the  South  the  seed  is  sown  any 
time  between  September  1  and  December  1,  depending  on  the 
locality. 

86.  Harvesting  of  barley.  —  The  grain  should  be  in  the  hard- 
dough  stage  when  cut.  The  straw  and  heads  at  this  stage  will 
be  yellow.  If  cut  too  green  the  kernels  will  shrivel.  The 
grain  is  cut  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  the  other 
cereals.     Excessive  weathering  in  the  shock  injures  the  ap- 


Small  Grains  155 

pearance  of  barley  and  lessens  its  value  in  the  market.  To 
protect  the  bundles,  the  shocks  should  be  made  sd  that  they  are 
not  easily  blown  over  and  a  cap  sheaf  should  be  placed  on  the 
top  of  each.  The  grain  should  be  threshed  as  soon  as  the 
bundles  have  dried  in  the  shock  and,  if  no  threshing  machine 
is  at  hand,  it  should  be  stacked  rather  than  left  in  the  shock 
too  long.     The  stacking  will  protect  it  from  the  weather. 

87.  Enemies  of  barley.  —  The  Hessian  fly  and  the  chinch- 
bug  are  insects  troublesome  to  barley,  and  they  are  controlled 
as  described  for  wheat.  Several  rusts  attack  barley,  but  it 
has  been  found  that  early-maturing  varieties  are  likely  to 
mature  before  much  damage  is  done  by  rust.  Thus  the  prac- 
tical way  to  combat  the  rust  is  to  use  such  varieties  and  plant 
the  seed  early.  Both  loose  smut  and  covered  smut  attack 
barley;  the  former  is  combated  by  the  hot-water  treatment 
and  the  latter  by  the  formalin  treatment. 

KICE 

88.  Distribution  and  characteristics  of  rice.  —  Asia  is  the 
chief  producer  of  rice,  for  out  of  an  average  yearly  production 
of  150,000,000;000  pounds,  135,000,000,000  are  produced  on  that 
continent.  The  United  States  grows  a  comparatively  small  part 
of  the  rice  of  the  world,  the  average  yearly  production  being 
700,000,000  pounds.  Rice-growing  in  the  United  States  is  con- 
fined largely  to  restricted  areas  in  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas, 
California,  South  Carolina,  and  North  Carolina. 

Like  other  cereals,  rice  is  a  member  of  the  grass  family  and  has 
shallow,  fibrous  roots,  jointed  stems,  and  blade-like  leaves.  The 
grain  is  held  in  a  panicle  that  is  less  open  than  the  panicle  of  oats  ; 
the  plants  grow  to  an  average  height  of  four  or  five  feet ;  the 
hulls  remain  attached  to  the  kernels  after  the  grain  is  threshed  ; 
and  the  kernel  itself  is  white,  hard,  and  vitreous.  The  grains 
are  removed  from  the  hulls  by  what  is  termed  polishing. 

89.  Uses  of  rice.  —  The  principal  use  of  rice  is  for  human 
food.     It  is  one  of  the  oldest  crops  of  the  eastern  nations  and 


156  ,  Effective  Farming 

for  many  centuries  has  been  their  chief  food.  Rice  polish,  a 
by-product  made  in  removing  the  hull,  is  a  very  valuable  feed 
for  Hve-stock.  Rice  bran  is  another  by-product  used  for  live- 
stock feed.  It  consists  of  the  seed-coat  of  the  grain  and  some 
of  the  hulls  and  polish.  Rice  hulls  have  little  food  value  and 
are  often  used  as  packing  material. 

90.  Climate  and  soils  for  rice.  —  Moist  climates  and  long, 
hot,  growing  seasons  are  best  for  rice.  Most  of  the  crop  is 
grown  on  low-lying  areas  that  can  be  quickly  irrigated  and 
quickly  drained,  although  some  varieties  are  grown  on  high 
ground  without  irrigation. 

91.  Cultural  methods.  —  Rice  is  sometimes  broadcasted, 
but  better  results  are  gained  by  drilling,  as  the  seeds  are  more 
uniformly  covered  and  a  better  stand  is  likely  to  result.  From 
one  to  two  bushels  of  seed  is  the  average  quantity  sown.  In 
the  United  States  the  planting  is  done  any  time  from  the  middle 
of  April  to  the  middle  of  May. 

Irrigation  is  an  important  factor  in  rice-growing.  Water 
must  be  plentiful  and  conditions  such  that  it  can  be  supplied 
and  removed  at  will.  Thus  areas  with  just  enough  slope  to 
cause  the  water  to  drain  away  are  desirable.  In  the  South- 
west, unless  the  soil  is  very  dry,  the  plants  are  allowed  to 
reach  a  height  of  about  eight  inches,  when  the  field  is  flooded 
to  a  depth  of  three  to  six  inches.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry  at 
planting  time,  it  is  irrigated  enough  to  provide  for  the  germi- 
nation of  the  seed.  After  the  plants  are  about  eight  inches 
high,  water  is  kept  on  the  field  until  the  rice  reaches  the  dough 
stage.  The  water  must  not  become  stagnant  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  and  this  is  prevented  by  maintaining  a  continuous 
flow^,  letting  water  into  the  field  at  a  high  place  and  removing 
at  a  low  place.  When  the  plants  have  reached  the  dough 
stage,  the  irrigating  is  stopped  and  the  land  allowed  to  dry 
enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  farming  implements.  The 
grain  is  then  cut  and  shocked.  Later  it  is  threshed  from  the 
shock  and  the  rough  rice  taken  to  the  mills  where  it  is  polished. 


Small  Grains  157 

In  the  Southeast  the  water  is  turned  into  the  field  as  soon 
as  the  seed  has  been  sown  and  the  soil  is  kept  wet  for  four  to 
six  days.  The  water  is  then  removed.  In  a  few  days  the 
area  is  again  flooded  and  kept  wet  for  about  three  weeks  or  a 
month,  when  the  irrigation  is  stopped  and  the  fields  hoed. 
When  the  jointing  of  the  plants  begins,  the  fields  are  again 
hoed  and  flooded,  the  water  being  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
ground  until  about  a  week  before  the  harvest. 

Upland  strains  of  rice  are  grown  without  irrigation.  The 
seed  is  planted  in  rows  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet 
apart  and  the  plants  are  given  several  cultivations  and  one  or 
two  hoeings  during  the  season. 

BUCKWHEAT 

92.  Distribution  and  characteristics  of  buckwheat.  —  Buck- 
wheat belongs  to  the  dock  family  and,  although  not  a  cereal, 
has  for  many  years  been  cultivated  like  them,  and  for  this 
reason  is  generally  described  in  connection  with  wheat,  oats, 
and  rye.  The  flowers  are  white,  tinged  with  pink.  The 
seeds  are  three-sided  and  resemble  those  of  the  dock.  The 
plants  start  to  bloom  about  four  weeks  after  planting  and 
continue  blooming  until  killed  by  frost.  Thus  at  harvest 
time  the  plants  contain  both  flowers  and  mature  seeds. 

New  York  and  Pennsylvania  produce  about  two-thirds  of 
the  buckwheat  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  average 
production  for  the  whole  country  is  about  15,000,000  bushels ; 
of  this,  New  York  produces  about  6,000,000  bushels  and  Penn- 
sylvania 4,000,000.  Michigan,  Maine,  West  Virginia,  and 
Virginia  are  next  in  production,  in  the  order  named. 

The  chief  use  of  buckwheat  is  for  flour  for  making  griddle 
cakes.  The  grain  is  sometimes  fed  to  live-stock,  especially 
poultry.  Buckwheat  middhngs  and  bran,  by-products  from 
the  manufacture  of  buckwheat  flour,  are  used  as  cattle  feed. 
Buckwheat  is  often  planted  by  bee-keepers,  the  flowers  being  a 
source  of  nectar  for  the  bees. 


158  Effective  Farming 

93.  Cultural  methods.  —  A  crop  of  buckwheat  will  mature 
in  about  eight  to  ten  weeks  after  planting.  Being  a  short- 
season  crop,  it  is  often  planted  on  ground  that  cannot  be  made 
ready  for  some  other  stand,  or  where  other  crops  have  been 
planted  and  failed.  It  will  grow  on  many  types  of  soil  and  will 
do  fairly  well  on  poor  soil.  For  this  reason,  it  is  often  grown 
on  soil  that  will  not  produce  other  crops  profitably.  The  type 
best  suited  to  buckwheat,  however,  is  a  well  drained,  fairly 
moist  sandy  loam  that  is  not  excessively  rich ;  if  the  soil  is 
too  rich  the  grain  will  lodge  badly.  For  the  best  results,  the 
land  should  be  plowed  long  enough  before  seeding  to  give  the 
soil  time  to  settle  and  the  sods  and  other  organic  matter  time 
to  start  to  decay.  The  land  should  then  be  prepared  as  for 
cereal  crops  and  a  mellow  seed-bed  secured. 

The  acre-rate  of  seeding  varies  from  two  to  five  pecks.  The 
seed  may  be  broadcasted  or  drilled  ;  drilling  requires  about  a  peck 
less  seed  to  the  acre  and  a  more  uniform  stand  is  likely  to  result. 

The  crop  should  be  cut  soon  after  the  first  seeds  mature  and 
before  the  first  heavy  frost.  If  the  cutting  is  delayed,  much 
grain  is  likely  to  be  lost  by  shattering.  The  implements  gen- 
erally used  for  cutting  buckwheat  are  either  the  reaper  or  the 
binder  with  the  bundle-tying  part  removed.  On  small  areas 
much  of  the  grain  is  cut  with  the  cradle.  The  grain  is  allowed 
to  dry  in  the  swath  for  a  few  days  and  is  then  bound  loosely 
by  hand  in  bundles  that  are  set  up  in  small  shocks  and  allowed 
to  cure.  Either  a  cloudy  day  or  the  early  morning  hours  is 
the  best  time  to  cut  and  shock  buckwheat ;  handling  it  while 
the  grain  is  somewhat  moist  prevents  excessive  shattering. 
The  crop  is  threshed  by  means  of  a  regular  threshing  machine. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  winter  wheat  seeding  often  delayed  until  after  the  first 
frost  ? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  seeding  wheat  with  a  grain-drill 
over  broadcasting  it  ? 


Small  Grains  159 

3.  How  are  the  following  weeds  combated  in  wheat  fields :  chess, 
darnel,  cockle,  wild  garlic,  pigeon-weed,  wild  mustard  ? 

4.  Describe  both  the  hot  water  and  the  formalin  methods  of  treat- 
ing smuts  of  wheat.  Which  treatment  is  used  for  loose  smut  ?  Which 
one  for  stinking  smut  ? 

5.  Describe  the  grain-bearing  portions  of  the  cereals. 

6.  What  kind  of  oats  should  be  planted  in  the  South ?     Why? 

7.  Why  is  rye  cut  green  when  the  straw  is  to  be  sold  for  manu- 
facturing purposes? 

8.  Explain  the  difference  between  two-rowed  and  six-rowed  barley. 

9.  Describe  the  method  of  irrigating  the  rice  land  in  Louisiana. 
In  South  Carolina, 

10.   What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  buckwheat  as  a  crop? 
How  is  buckwheat  harvested  ?  • 

EXERCISES 

1.  Bushel  weight  of  grain.  —  Fill  a  peck  measure  level  full  of 
wheat  and  compute  the  weight  of  a  bushel.  Do  the  same  with  the 
other  small  grains.  How  do  these  weights  compare  with  the  pub- 
lished weights  of  these  grains?  The  legal  weights  and  measures  are 
generally  published  in  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook. 

2.  Testing  seeds  of  grain.  —  Sprout  one  hundred  seeds  of  each  of 
the  small  grains  in  seed  testers  and  determine  the  percentage  of  germi- 
nation. Do  this  with  several  samples  from  different  sources.  Study 
the  sprouted  seeds  and  find  the  caulicle  and  the  plumule.  How  do  the 
seeds  like  wheat  and  rye  that  are  free  when  threshed  differ  in  sprouting 
from  barley  and  oats? 

3.  Smut  of  grains.  —  In  a  wheat  or  an  oat  field  place  a  hoop  or  rec- 
tangular frame  over  a  section  of  the  growing  grain,  count  the  plants, 
and  if  any  are  smutted,  determine  the  percentage.  Secure  wheat  and 
oats  from  farmers  and  in  the  school  laboratory  practice  the  two 
methods  of  smut  treatment  with  wheat  and  the  formalin  treatment 
with  oats. 

4.  Examination  of  grain  heads.  —  Secure  mature  heads  of  all  of  the 
different  kinds  of  grain  grown  in  the  vicinity  and  when  dry  mount  them 
on  cardboard  by  pasting  narrow  strips  of  paper  across  the  stems. 
During  the  school  year  examine  each  kind  of  grain  carefully  and  study 
the  botanical  characters  as  previously  given.  Make  drawings  of  each 
of  the  small  grains. 

5.  Tillering  of  grain  plants.  —  In  a  field  of  small  grain  study  the  till- 
ering of  the  plants.     Notice  that  several  plants  grow  from  a  seed.    Com- 


160  Effective  Farming 

pare  the  number  of  stalks  on  a  plant  growing  far  separated  from  other 
plants  and  one  growing  in  a  thickly  planted  field.  Also,  make  com- 
parisons of  plants  growing  in  light  and  in  heavy  soils.  How  do  you 
account  for  the  differences  ? 


REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  660- 

670;  485-494;  559-563;  202-206;  559-563;  534-539;  217-221. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Livingston,  George,  Field  Crop  Production.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Montgomery,  E.  G.,  Productive  Farm  Crops.     The  Lippincott  Co. 
Hunt,  T.  F.,  Cereals  in  America.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  139,  Emmer:   Grain  for  Semi-arid  Regions. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  466,  Winter  Emmer. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  596,  Culture  of  Winter  Wheat  in  the  Eastern  United 

States. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  616,   Winter-wheat  Varieties  for  the  Eastern    United 

States. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  678,  Growing  Hard  Spring  Wheat. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  680,  Varieties  of  Hard  Spring  Wheat. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  534,  Durum  Wheat. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  420,  Oats  :  Distribution  and   Uses. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  424,  Oats  :  Growing  the  Crop. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  436,  Winter  Oats  for  the  South. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  756,  Culture  of  Rye  in  the  Eastern  Half  of  the  United 

States. 
Special  Circular  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Rye  in  the  Cotton  Belt. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  443,  Barley  :   Growing  the  Crop. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  427,  Barley  Culture  in  the  Southern  States. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  518,  Winter  Barley. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  417,  Rice  Culture. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  688,  Cultiire  of  Rice  in  California. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  673,  Irrigation  Practice  in  Rice  Growing. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  507,  The  Smuts  of  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  and  Corn. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  799,  Carbon  Bisulphid  as  an  Insecticide. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  640,  The  Hessian  Fly. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  657,  Chinch  Bug. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  786,  Fall-sown  Grains  in  Maryland  and  Virginia. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  800,  Grains  for  the  Dry  Lands  of  Central   Oregon. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  835,    How  to  Detect  Outbreaks  of  Insects   and  Save 

the  Grain  Crops. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GRASSES  AND    SORGHUMS 

Grasses 
Characteristics  of  grasses. 

Number  of  grasses  cultivated  for  hay  and  pasture. 
Uses  of  grasses. 
Soils  for  grasses. 

Purchasing  and  planting  grass  seed. 
Harvesting  grass  crops  for  hay. 
Grasses  for  hay  and  pasture. 

Timothy. 

Kentucky  blue-grass. 

Canada  blue-grass. 

Redtop. 

Orchard-grass. 

Rye-grasses. 

Meadow-fescue. 

Tall  oat-grass. 

Brome-grass. 

Bermuda-grass. 

Millets. 

Sorghums 
Description  of  sorghums. 
Broom-corn. 

Groups. 

Cultural  methods. 
Saccharine  sorghums. 

Groups. 

Cultural  methods. 
Non-saccharine  sorghums. 

Groups. 

Cultural  methods. 

Grass  is  the  fundamental  crop  in  North  American  husbandry. 
It  provides  the  base  on  which  the  great  Uve-stock  industry  is 
developed.     Grass  holds  and  protects  the  land,  and  its  extensive 
M  161 


162  •    Effective  Farming 

root  system  contributes  much  to  the  structure  and  ameUoration 
of  the  soil.  One  hardly  thinks  of  a  farm  without  forage  and 
grazing.  Most  of  the  hay  and  pasture  crops  are  perennial 
grasses,  but  in  California  and  other  parts  the  annual  grains, 
as  oats,  may  be  grown  and  cured  for  hay.  Many  parts  of  the 
country  have  good  native  pasture  grasses.  This  is  true  of  the 
western  plains.  The  South  has  few  native  grasses  of  the  hay 
and  pasture  type,  but  the  introduced  species  supply  the  need. 
In  the  Northeast,  timothy  grass,  an  introduction  from  the  Old 
World,  is  the  most  important  single  species.  All  the  true 
cereal  grains  belong  to  the  grass  family.  Sorghum  yields 
much  forage,  as  well  as  sirup  and  grain.  The  products 
of  agriculture  are  of  two  great  classes,  the  crops  and  the  ani- 
mals; horses,  cattle,  beef,  swine,  poultry,  subsist  largely  on 
the  grasses  and  the  grass-family  grains. 

GRASSES 

94.  Characteristics  of  grasses. — The  term  ''grass"  is  some- 
what misleading.  Botanically  it  means  a  member  of  a  par- 
ticular group  of  plants  known  as  the  grass  family.  In  common 
usage  it  is  often  applied  to  any  plant  that  is  cut  for  hay,  in- 
cluding legumes  like  clover  and  alfalfa,  as  well  as  certain  sedge- 
like plants  often  found  growing  wild.  Corn,  wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley, and  rye  are  members  of  the  grass  family.  As  a  rule  they 
are  grown  for  the  grain  and  straw,  but  are  often  cut  for  hay. 
Some  of  the  common  characteristics  of  grasses  are :  (1)  They 
have  a  fibrous  root  system ;  a  comparison  of  the  roots  of  wheat 
and  clover  will  show  the  numerous  thread-like  roots  of  the 
one  and  the  long  tap-root  of  the  other.  (2)  The  stem,  or 
culm,  has  a  smooth  wall  and  may  be  hollow  except  at  the  nodes 
or  may  be  filled  with  pith ;  the  culm  of  most  varieties  of  wheat 
is  hollow,  that  of  corn  is  filled  with  pith.  (3)  The  leaves  are 
parallel-veined,  differing  from  the  netted-veined  leaves  of 
many  plants.  (4)  The  leaves  are  made  up  of  three  parts,  the 
sheath,  blade,  and  ligule;   the  sheath  starts  from  a  node  and 


Grasses  and  Sorghums  163 

envelops  part  of  the  internode ;  the  blade  continues  from  the 
sheath  and  is  the  most  apparent  part  of  the  leaf;  the  ligule 
is  at  the  upper  part  of  the  sheath  where  it  joins  the  blade  and 
it  varies  in  size  considerably  in  the  different  species.  (5)  The 
blossoms  are  formed  in  a  head  which  varies  materially  in 
different  species  as,  for  example,  the  head  of  wheat  and  oats, 
or  of  corn  and  timothy. 

95.  Number  of  grasses  cultivated  for  hay  and  pasture.  — 
According  to  Montgomery  some  fourteen  hundred  species  of 
grass  are  found  in  the  United  States  and  about  five  thousand 
in  the  world.  Of  this  large  number,  however,  only  a  few  are 
cultivated  extensively  in  the  United  States  for  hay  and  pas- 
ture and  a  few  others  are  of  local  importance  in  certain  areas. 
There  are  reasons  why  so  few  of  the  many  grasses  are  planted. 
A  grass  must  produce  seed  that  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  har- 
vested and  it  must  be  productive  and  persistent.  Most  of 
the  natural  wild  grasses  fail  in  one  or  more  of  these  respects. 
The  grasses  commonly  cultivated  in  America  are  described  on 
subsequent  pages. 

96.  Uses  of  grasses.  —  The  grasses  that  are  planted  prin- 
cipally for  hay  and  pasture  are  of  great  economic  value  to 
farmers.  In  some  sections  hay  is  the  chief  crop.  Hay  cured 
properly  is  a  palatable  feed  for  live-stock  and  it  will  keep  for  a 
long  time,  thus  extending  the  period  during  which  the  grass  can 
be  fed.  The  use  of  grass  as  pasture  is  important.  In  some 
sections,  especially  where  land  is  cheap  or  of  such  nature  that 
it  is  not  easily  tilled,  the  cheapest  way  to  keep  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses  during  the  summer  is  to  let  them  run  on  pasture. 

Grasses,  also,  are  used  extensively  for  lawns.  The  fine  leaves 
and  creeping  habits  of  some  varieties  make  them  especially 
useful  for  this  purpose.  Kentucky  blue-grass,  where  it  will 
grow,  is  one  of  the  best  grasses  for  lawns.  Bermuda-grass  is 
much  used  for  lawns  in  the  South. 

97.  Soils  for  grasses.  —  The  type  of  soil  considered  to  be 
best  for  grass  is  a  fertile  clay  loam.     The  fibrous  root  system 


164  Effective  Farming 

seems  better  able  to  derive  plant-food  from  finely  divided 
than  from  coarse  soil.  Soils  for  grasses  should  be  well  drained 
for  best  results,  but  some  varieties  of  grass  can  be  made  to 
grow  on  soil  that  is  too  wet  for  other  crops  and  some  kinds 
will  grow  on  dry  soils.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  grasses  have  a 
rather  wide  adaptability  as  to  soil. 

The  land  to  be  seeded  to  grass  should  be  well  prepared. 
Usually  the  crop  is  harvested  for  several  years  and  for  this 
reason,  especially,  it  pays  to  give  the  land  good  preparation 
before  seeding  it.  The  plowing  should  be  deep  and  the  sur- 
face preparation  thorough. 

98.  Purchasing  and  planting  grass  seed.  —  Much  grass  seed 
of  poor  quality  is  on  the  market,  but  usually  good  seed  can 
be  obtained  from  a  reliable  dealer  by  paying  a  reasonable 
price.  It  does  not  pay  to  plant  the  inferior  quality.  Weed 
seeds,  as  a  rule,  are  less  common  in  grass  seeds  than  they  are 
in  clover  and  alfalfa  seed,  since  they  can  be  removed  easily 
from  the  former  by  means  of  fanning  mills.  Nevertheless 
much  of  the  seed  offered  for  sale  contains  too  high  a  percentage 
of  weed  seeds.  Often  an  examination  with  a  hand  lens  will 
reveal  their  presence.  Such  a  product  should,  of  course,  be 
avoided. 

When  grass  is  to  be  grown  alone  in  a  field  the  seed  is  usually 
broadcasted  either  by  hand  or  by  means  of  broadcast  seeders, 
of  which  there  are  many  good  types  on  the  market.  When 
grass  and  a  grain  are  to  grow  together  the  seeds  of  both  are 
usually  planted  at  one  operation  with  a  grain  drill. 

99.  Harvesting  grass  crops  for  hay.  —  To  secure  the  best 
results,  grass  for  hay  must  be  harvested  at  the  proper  stage 
of  growth.  If  allowed  to  become  too  ripe,  the  hay  is  woody 
and  not  relished  by  live-stock ;  if  too  green,  the  grass  will  be 
difficult  to  cure  and  the  yield  of  hay  will  be  small. 

Modern  hay-making  machinery  has  been  highly  developed 
and  much  of  the  labor  is  carried  on  by  horse  or  mechanical 
power.     The  grass  is  cut  with  a  mower  (Fig.  56)  and  allowed 


Grasses  and  Sorghums 


165 


166 


Effective  Farming 


to  lie  in  the  swath  for  a  time  to  cure ;  if  the  sun  is  shining  a 
few  hours  will  generally  be  enough  to  cure  the  hay  sufficiently. 
In  case  the  hay  becomes  wet  or  a  very  heavy  crop  has  been 
cut,  the  use  of  a  hay-tedder  may  be  necessary.     This  implement 


Fig,  57.  —  A  hay  field.     The  hay  is  bunched  in  cocks. 

is  provided  with  long,  forked  arms  that  turn,  or  kick  the  hay 
over,  as  the  implement  is  drawn  across  the  field.  After  the 
hay  has  cured,  it  is  raked  into  windrows,  usually  with  a  hay 
rake,  of  which  there  are  several  types  on  the  market.  From 
the  windrows  it  is  either  placed  in  cocks  (Fig.  57)  or  hauled 


Fig.  68.  —  Loading  hay  by  hand. 


Grasses  and  Sorghums 


167 


.Fig.  59.  —  Loading  hay  with  a  hay  loader. 

direct  to  the  stack,  barn,  or  shed.  For  transporting  the  hay, 
a  rack  placed  on  the  running  gear  of  a  wagon  is  usually  em- 
ployed. These  racks  may  be  loaded  by  hand  as  shown  in  Fig. 
58,  or  with  a  hay-loader,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59.  A  sweep-rake 
(Fig.  60)  is  sometimes  used  to  convey  the  hay  from  the  wind- 


Fia.  60.  —  A  sweep-rake  briu^iiiy  the  hay  to  the  stacker. 


168 


Effective  Farming 


row,  cock,  or  swath  and  transport  it  to  the  stacker  (Fig.  61), 
a  device  used  to  build  the  stack.  Several  types  of  stackers  are 
on  the  market  and  the  use  of  any  of  them  means  labor  saved. 
If  the  hay  is  to  be  placed  in  a  mow  or  shed,  hay  forks,  hay 


Fig.  G1.  —  Stacking  hay. 


slings,  or  carriers  are  often  employed  to  do  away  with  the 
hand  labor  of  pitching  the  hay. 

100.  Grasses  for  hay  and  pasture.  —  The  grasses  that  are 
extensively  cultivated  for  hay  and  pasture  are  timothy,  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass,  rye-grasses,  redtop,  and  orchard-grass. 
Those  of  secondary  importance  are  rheadow-fescue,  tall  oat- 
grass,  Bermuda-grass,  and  Canada  blue-grass.  All  of  these 
are  briefly  described  on  the  next  few  pages. 

Timothy.  —  Considerably  more  than  half  the  area  devoted 
to  grass  in  the  United  States  is  planted  to  timothy  or  some 
mixture   containing  timothy.     Often  it  is   planted   with  red 


Grasses  and  Sorghums 


169 


clover.  The  chief  timothy-producing  region  lies  north  of  the 
Ohio  River  and  east  of  the  Missouri  River.  The  grass  is  also 
grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States.  It  is 
not  well  adapted  to  the  South,  being  easily  killed  in  summer, 
In  money  value  timothy  leads  all  other  grasses 
grown  for  hay. 

Timothy  is  named  from  Timothy  Hanson  of 
Maryland  who,  it  is  said,  introduced  the  grass 
from  England  about  1720.  It  is  recorded  that 
a  man  by  the  name  of  John  Herd  was  culti- 
vating the  grass  in  New  Hampshire  about  1747 
and  in  New  England  and  some  other  sections 
it  was  long  known  as  Herd's  grass.  The  com- 
mon name  now  in  most  sec- 
tions is  timothy,  although  in 
parts  of  New  England  the 
name  Herd's  grass  still  per- 
sists. This  is  unfortunate, 
because  this  name  is  used  in 
some  sections  for  redtop. 

Timothy  (Fig.  62)  is  an  erect- 
growing  plant  with  an  average 
height  of  two  to  four  feet.  The  head  is  a  spike 
from  three  to  four  inches  long.  The  leaves  are 
not  abundant  and  usually  grow  near  the  base 
of  the  plant.  New  stems  are  produced  by 
tillering  and  also  by  means  of  short  stolons ; 
often  a  single  plant  in  a  few  years  will  produce 
a  clump  a  foot  or  so  in  diameter.  Two  or 
three  crops  of  timothy  are  generally  produced 
before  the  ground  is  broken  up  and  under  very 
favorable  conditions  fields  have  been  kept  in  timothy  for  eight 
to  ten  years  or  even  longer. 

Kentucky  blue-grass.  —  The  most  used   pasture  and  lawn 
grass  is  Kentucky  blue-grass,  or  June-grass  as  it  is  sometimes 


Fig.  62.— 
Timothy. 


Fig.    63.  —  Ken 
tucky  blue-grass. 


170 


Effective  Farming 


called  (Fig.  63).  It  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  timothy  region 
and  in  the  states  just  south  of  this  section.  In  the  South  it  is 
usually  killed  in  hot  weather,  but  will  endure  in  shady  places. 
It  is  not  a  good  hay  plant,  but  as  a  pasture 
and  lawn  grass  it  has  no  equal.  It  makes 
a  dense,  firm  sod  that  improves  with  age 
and  it  stands  pasturing  well. 

Canada  blue-grass.  —  Characteristic  dif- 
ferences between  Canada  blue-grass  (Fig. 
64)  and  Kentucky  blue-grass  are  that  the 
former  has  somewhat  flatter  stems,  a  less 
open  head,  and  a  bend  in  the  stem.  It 
has  been  found  particularly  well  suited  to 
conditions  in  the  southern  part  of  Canada 
and  the  northeast- 
ern part  of  the 
United  States.  On 
the  whole  it  is  less 
productive  than 
Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  but  on  some 
soils,  especially 
those  that  are  acid  or  sandy,  it  will 
make  a  better  growth.  It  makes  a  good 
pasture,  but  does  not  start  so  early  in 
the  spring  or  grow  so  rapidly  as  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass. 

Redtop. — ^The  grass  redtop  (Fig.  65) 
is  widely  distributed.  It  grows  best  in 
a  rather  cool  climate,  but  it  also  thrives 
in  a  warm  climate  and  can  be  grown  in 
the  South.  It  is  not  as  good  a  hay 
plant  as  timothy,  but  it  stands  wet  and  acid  soils  better  and 
in  the  timothy  region  is  often  used  on  such  soils  in  prefer- 
ence to  timothy.     Its  principal  merit  is  that  it  often  will  grow 


Fig.  64.  —  Canada 
blue-grass. 


Fig.  65.  — Redtop. 


Grasses  and  Sorghums 


171 


where  timothy  fails.     As  a  pasture  grass  it  ranks  next  to 
the  blue-grasses. 

Orchard-grass.  —  The  plants  of  orchard-grass  (Fig.  66)  grow 
well  in  the  shade  and,  because  of  this,  are  often  sown  in  orchards. 
They  grow  in  bunches  and  make  an  uneven  sod. 
The  grass  does  well  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
timothy  section  and  is  also  grown  successfully 
about  three  hundred  miles  farther  south.  West 
Virginia,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri  produce 
most  of  the  crop.  It  will  grow  on  most  kinds 
of  soil  and  will  endure  wet  ground,  but  makes 
its  best  growth  on  well  drained,  fertile  land. 
As  a  hay  plant  it  is  much  less  desirable  than 
timothy  and  its  culture  becomes  really  impor- 
tant only  outside  of  the  timothy  region.  As  a 
pasture  grass  it  ranks  with  timothy;  live-stock 
eat  it  readily  and  it  starts 
growth  early  in  the  spring 
and  continues  late  in  the 
fall. 

Rye-grasses.  —  The  rye- 
grasses are  cultivated  extensively  in 
Europe,  but  not  much  in  America.  There 
are  two  kinds,  the  Italian  and  the  Eng- 
lish, or  perennial.  Italian  rye-grass  (Fig. 
67)  is  a  short-lived  perennial;  often  it 
lasts  only  one  year.  In  the  Pacific  Coast 
States  it  is  sometimes  grown  in  meadows 
and  has  been  recommended  for  the  South 
as  a  soiling  crop.  English  rye-grass  is 
adapted  to  both  pastures  and  meadows 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  grasses  of  Europe. 
It  is  a  perennial  that  grows  best  on  moist,  fertile  soils.  It 
makes  a  good  quality  of  hay  and  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent 
in  the  Pacific  Coast  States. 


Fig.  66.  — Or- 
chard-grass. 


—  Italian  rye- 
grass. 


172 


Effective  Farming 


Meadow-fescue.  —  Like  the  rye-grasses  meadow-fescue  (Fig. 

68)  is  grown  extensively  in  Europe,  but  not  much  in  America. 

The  chief  sections  in  the  United  States  where  it  is  found  are 

western   Missouri  and  northeastern   Kansas. 

The  quaUty  of  hay  is  not  so  good  as  that  from 

timothy,  but  the  yield  is  about  the  same. 

Tall  oat-grass.  —  This  oat-grass  (Fig.  69)  is 
a  native  of  Europe  where  it  is  much  used  for 
meadows  and  pastures.  In  the  South  this  grass 
remains  green  all  winter  and  for  this  reason 
the  name  evergreen-grass  is  often  applied  to  it. 
It  seems  well  adapted  to  the  South  and  will 
grow  on  soils  too  sandy  for  other  grasses. 

Brome-grass.  —  The  drought-resistant  plant, 
brome-grass  (Fig.  70),  is  adapted  climatically 
to  North  Dakota  and  to  the 
west  and  northwest  of  that  state. 
It  makes  palatable  pasture  and 
good  hay.  A  field  is  usually  cut 
for  hay  for  about  two  seasons, 
after  which  it  is  turned  into 
pasture.  It  will  not,  as  a  rule,  produce  more 
than  two  good  crops  of  hay,  but  will  make  ex- 
cellent pasture  for  several  years.  It  is  a  very 
valuable  grass  in  the  regions  where  grown  and 
supplies  a  great  need  in  that  territory. 

Bermuda-grass.  —  In  the  South,  Bermuda-grass 
(Fig.  71)  is  grown  extensively.  It  has  a  creeping 
habit  and  is  much  used  as  a  pasture  and  lawn 
grass  and  to  some  extent  for  hay.  When  intended 
for  hay,  two  or  three  cuttings  are  made  in  a 
season  and  the  total  yield  does  not  usually  make 
more  than  a  ton  and  a  half  to  the  acre.  It  is  very  persistent 
and  very  difficult  to  eradicate  when  once  established  and,  for 
this  reason,  it  is  looked  on  with  disfavor  by  many. 


Fig.  68.  —  Meadow 
fescue. 


Fig.  69.  — TaU 
oat-grass. 


Grasses  and  Sorghums 


173 


Millets.  —  Several  annual  grasses  are  used  for  forage,  the 

chief  ones  being  the  millets.     The  term  millet  includes  a  number 

of  species.     The  ones  most  commonly  grown  in  America  are 

the  foxtail  millets,  the  broom-corn  millets,  and 

the  barnyard  millets. 

The  foxtail  millets  resemble  the  foxtail  weed. 

The    three    important    varieties    are   common 

millet,  German  millet,  and  Hungarian  millet. 

Common  millet  is  the  smallest   and  matures 

earliest.     It  is  adapted   to  northern  sections. 

Under  favorable  conditions  it  will  yield  two 

to  two  and  one-half  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre. 

German  millet  is  the  largest  variety  and  re- 
quires a  somewhat  longer  season  for  develop- 
ment than  either  of  the 
others.  It  is  popular  in 
the  Central  States  and 
the  South  where  it  gives 
larger  yields,  but  coarser 
hay  than  either  of  the 
other  two  foxtail  millets. 
Hungarian  millet  is  intermediate  in  size 
between  the  other  two  varieties  and  re- 
quires a  longer  season  than  common 
millet.  It  is  popular  in  the  Eastern 
States.  Its  yields  are  somewhat  heavier 
than  common  millet,  but  the  hay  is 
likely  to  be  of  a  poorer  quality. 

The  broom-corn  millets  have  the  head 
spreading  in  a  panicle  somewhat  hke  the 
head  of  broom-corn.  (See  Fig.  72.)  They 
mature  earlier  than  the  foxtail   millets 

and  are  adapted  for  culture  chiefly  in  the  North  Central  States. 
The  barnyard  millets  are  varieties  of  the   common   weed, 

barnyard   grass.      A   cultivated   species   known   as    Japanese 


Fig.  70.  —  Brome- 

grass. 


Fig.  71 .  —  Bermuda-grass. 


174 


Effective  Farming 


m 


millet  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 
United  States.  The  hay  is  coarse  and  of  poor 
quality. 

The  millets  are  quick-maturing  crops  and, 
in  addition  to  being  used  for  hay,  are  often 
planted  for  soiling  crops  and  sometimes  for 
pasture.  They  should  be  planted  after  the 
ground  is  warm,  usually  after  corn-planting 
time.  The  seeds  are  small  and  the  soil  should 
be  made  into  a  fine  seed-bed. 

SORGHUMS 

101.  Description.  —  Three  distinct  classes 
of  sorghums  are  grown  in  the  United  States, 
(1)  the  broom-corns,  (2)  the  saccharine,  or 
sweet  sorghums,  (3)  the  non-saccharine,  or 
grain  sorghums.  All  of  the  classes  have  cer- 
tain common  characteristics.  The  plants  are 
annuals  belonging  to  the  grass  family;  they 
have  a  strong,  fibrous  root  system ;  they 
withstand  drought  remarkably  well ;  the 
stems  are  tall,  varying  in  different  varieties 
from  four  or  five  feet  to  twelve  feet ;  the 
leaves  are  long,  narrow  and  more  pointed 
than  those  of  corn ;  the  head  varies  in  shape 
from  a  spike-like  panicle  in  the  grain  sorghums 
to  a  long  branched  panicle  in  the  broom- 
corns;  the  grains  are  round,  much  smaller 
than  those  of  corn,  and  are  usually  either  red 
or  white  in  color. 

102.  Broom-corn.  —  This  corn  has  straight 
stems  and  long,  straight,  loose,  open  heads 

that  are  used  in  the  making  of  brooms.  The  stalks  are  dry 
and  pithy  and  lack  the  sweet  juice  of  the  saccharine  sorghums. 
The  seed  heads  (Fig.  72)  are  known  as  the  brush. 


Fig.  72.  — Head  of 
broom-corn. 


Grasses  and  Sorghums  175 

Groups.  —  Two  groups  of  broom-corn  are  under  culti- 
vation, the  dwarf  and  the  standard.  The  dwarf  grows  from 
four  to  six  feet  high,  has  a  large  quantity  of  foliage,  and  pro- 
duces a  fine  brush  from  ten  to  twenty-four  inches  long.  It  is 
usually  made  into  whisk-brooms,  although  some  of  the  larger 
heads  are  made  into  carpet  brooms.  The  standard  broom-corn 
grows  to  a  height  of  ten  to  fifteen  feet  and  has  a  brush  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-eight  inches  long.  It  is  used  for  the  mak- 
ing of  carpet,  stable,  and  warehouse  brooms. 

Cultural  methods.  —  Broom-corn  requires  a  climatic  condition 
similar  to  that  for  corn.  Most  of  the  commercial  crop  is  grown 
in  lUinois,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma,  Illinois  being  the 
chief  producer. 

Dwarf  varieties  are  planted  in  rows  usually  three  feet  apart 
with  the  plants  two  to  three  inches  apart  in  the  rows ;  and 
standard  varieties  in  rows  from  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet 
apart  with  the -plants  three  inches  apart.  The  date  of  plant- 
ing is  a  little  later  than  that  for  corn ;  the  ground  must  be 
thoroughly  warmed  before  the  seeds  are  sown.  Corn-planters 
with  small-hole  drill  plates  are  usually  employed  in  planting 
the  seed.  The  soil  is  cultivated  as  for  corn.  When  the  flowers 
are  in  full  bloom  the  crop  is  harvested.  In  the  operation  of 
harvesting,  the  plants  are  either  cut  or  pulled,  the  heads  taken 
off  and  sorted,  the  immature  seeds  removed  by  means  of  a 
combing  device  or  a  thresher,  and  the  brush  cured  and  baled, 
in  which  form  it  is  placed  on  the  market. 

103.  Saccharine  sorghums.  —  These  sorghums  are  grown 
for  the  production  of  sirup  and  for  forage.  They  have  tall, 
leafy  stems  that  are  full  of  sweet  juice.  This  juice,  when 
extracted  and  boiled,  makes  the  familiar  sorghum  sirup  of 
commerce.  Sorghum  for  forage  is  grown  for  pasture,  soiling, 
and  silage. 

Groups.  —  Of  the  sweet  sorghums  many  varieties  are  under 
cultivation,  but  they  can  all  be  arranged  into  four  groups, 
known  as  amber,  orange,  sumac  or  redtop,  and  gooseneck. 


176 


Effective  Farming 


The  amber  sorghums   (Fig.   73)   have  loose  open   panicles 
usually  black  in  color,  and  the  seeds  are  reddish  yellow,  but 

are  nearly  covered  with  black, 
shiny  glumes.  The  varieties 
of  this  group  are  the  earliest 
maturing  of  the  sweet  sorghums 
and  are  used  extensively  for 
forage  in  northern  sections. 

The  orange  sorghums  have 
a  rather  compact  head  and  the 
reddish-yellow  seeds  project 
from  the  glumes  farther  than 
in  the  amber  varieties,  thus 
making  the  heads  of  a  lighter- 
red  color.  The  plants  mature 
about  two  weeks  later  than  the 
amber  sorghums.     (Fig.  74.) 

The  sumac,  or 
red  top,  sorghums 
have  small  red  seeds 
that  project  beyond 
the  glumes  and  give  the  head  a  red  appearance. 
They  mature  about  the  same  time  as  the  orange 
varieties. 

In  the  gooseneck  sorghums  the  head  is  borne  in  a 
curved  stem  that  bends  downward.  The  heads  at 
maturity  are  almost  black  in  color  and  the  plants 
mature  about  a  week  or  ten  days  later  than  those 
of  the  orange  or  sumac  varieties. 

Cultural  methods.  —  When  sorghum  is  grown  for 
sirup,  the  seeds  are  usually  planted  in  rows  three    Fig.  74.  — 
or  three  and  one-half  feet  apart  and  from  four  to       Orange 

^  sorghum. 

six  inches  apart   in   the   rows.      When  grown  for 

forage  the  method  of  sowing  will  vary  with  the  purpose  for 

which  it  is  to  be  used.     It  may  be  broadcasted,  drilled  in 


Fig.  73.  —  Amber  sorghum. 


Grasses  and  Sorghums 


177 


with  a  grain  drill  with  all  the  holes  open,  or  with  some  of 
the  holes  closed  to  make  the  rows  wide  enough  apart  to 
permit  of  cultivation  between  them,  or  with  a  corn-planter. 
In  favorable  seasons  the  heaviest  yield  of  hay  and  best  quality 
forage  are  usually  secured  from  broadcastmg  or  drilling  in 
close  rows.  The  crop  for  hay  may  be  cut  with  a  mower,  a 
binder,  or  a  scythe.  When  grown  for  silage,  the  seeds  are 
planted  in  wide  rows  and  the  plants  are  usually  cut  with  a 
corn-harvester.  As 
a  soihng  crop,  sor- 
ghum is  more  easily 
handled  when  sown 
in  a  wide  row  than 
in  close  planting. 
For  pasture,  it 
should  be  sown  or 
drilled  thickly.  Sor- 
ghum is  best  cut  for 
hay  or  soiling  pur- 
poses from  the  time 
of  heading  until  the 
seeds  are  in  the 
dough  stage.  For 
sirup  the  harvesting 
is  done  when  the 
seeds  are  in  the  late- 
milk  stage.  The 
heads  and  leaves  are  removed  before  the  juice  is  pressed  from 
the  stalks,  which  is  done  by  passing  the  stalks  between  heavy 
rollers,  after  which  the  juice  is  evaporated  to  the  desired 
consistency. 

104.  Non-saccharine  sorghums.  —  These  sorghums  are 
grown  chiefly  for  the  grain,  which  is  contained  in  the  matured 
heads.  The  forage  value  of  the  stems  is  not  large,  except  in 
the  kafirs,  which  have  semi-juicy  stems  with  large  and  abundant 


Fig.  75.  —  Heads  of  four  varieties  of  kafir. 


178  Effective  Farming 

leaves.  These  grain  sorghums  are  grown  chiefly  in  Kansas, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Colorado.  They  are 
drought-resistant  plants  and  make  very  valuable  crops  in 
sections  too  dry  for  corn.  Compared  with  corn  they  are 
somewhat  higher  in  protein,  the  carbohydrate  content  is  about 
the  same,  and  the  fat  much  lower.  In  feeding  value  they 
have  been  found  to  be  about  90  per  cent  that  of  corn. 
They  are  palatable  and  are  eaten  with  relish  by  live-stock. 

Groups.  —  The  chief  groups  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums 
are  kafir  (Fig.  75),  milo,  durra,  and  kaoliang.  The  groups 
differ  in  shape  and  size  of  the  heads  and  in  size  of  the  stem  and 
stalks.     All  have  the  same  use. 

Cultural  methods.  —  The  crop  is  seeded  and  cultivated  much 
like  corn.  It  is  harvested  in  four  ways  —  by  cutting  with  a 
corn-binder,  by  heading  with  a  kafir-header,  or  with  an  or- 
dinary grain-header,  or  by  heading  by  hand.  That  cut  with 
a  corn-binder  is  usually  shocked  and  either  headed  later  or 
fed  in  the  bundle.  Proper  curing  and  storage  is  a  problem 
in  handling  the  headed  grain.  If  the  crop  is  at  all  green  or 
is  wet  from  rains,  the  heads  are  usually  thrown  out  in  long, 
shallow  piles  to  cure,  after  which  they  are  stored  in  cribs  or 
granaries.  If  the  crop  is  fully  mature  and  dry,  the  heads  may 
be  taken  to  the  storage  place  without  spreading  in  piles.  Cribs 
and  bins  used  for  the  storage  of  the  heads  must  be  well  venti- 
lated or  the  grain  will  heat  too  much. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  grass  from  the  botanical  standpoint? 

2.  State  the  chief  uses  of  grasses. 

3.  Why  should  not  cheap  grass  seed  be  planted? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  curing  of  grass? 

5.  Which  grass  grown  for  hay  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  United 
States? 

6.  What  is  the  chief  grass  used  for  hay  in  the  region  where  you 
live?  How  is  this  hay  disposed  of  by  the  farmers?  Is  it  utihzed  as 
feed  for  live-stock  on  their  own  farms  or  is  it  sold  to  be  shipped  from  the 


Grasses  and  Sorghums  179 

region?      Which  method  is  better  from  a  soil-improvement  stand- 
point ? 

7.  Tell  how  the  following  grasses  multiply  after  planting:  tim- 
othy, Bermuda-grass,  blue-grass. 

8.  What  are  the  chief  annual  grasses  used  for  hay? 

9.  State  the  characteristics  of  the  sorghums. 

10.  For  what  two  purposes  are  saccharine  sorghums  grown  ? 

11.  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  are  the  grain  sorghums 
grown?  How  does  the  grain  of  these  plants  compare  with  that  of 
corn  in  feeding  value  ? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Roots  of  grasses,  —  Dig  up  a  few  plants  of  timothy  or  other 
grass  and  wash  the  soil  from  the  roots.  How  deep  did  the  roots  go  into 
the  soil?  What  term  is  employed  to  describe  the  root  system  of 
grasses?  Dig  up  a  few  clover  or  alfalfa  plants  and  compare  with  the 
grass  plants.  How  do  the  two  classes  differ  in  length  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  roots  ? 

2.  Tillering  of  grasses.  —  Examine  grass  plants  in  the  field  for  till- 
ering in  the  way  small  grains  were  examined.  Which  kinds  tiller  and 
which  do  not? 

3.  Testing  of  seeds  for  germination.  —  Secure  from  several  sources 
samples  of  grass  seeds  and  test  them  for  germinating  properties  in  seed 
testers. 

4.  Purity  of  seeds.  —  Examine  the  samples  of  grass  seed  with  a 
hand  lens  to  determine  whether  or  not  weed  seeds  are  present.  Secure 
from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  a  copy  of 
Farmers'  Bulletin  382  and  by  following  the  directions  given  in  this 
bulletin  determine  the  purity  of  the  samples. 

5.  Characteristics  of  different  grasses.  —  Throughout  the  year  as 
the  different  grasses  mature  secure  plants  showing  roots,  stems,  and 
blossoms.  Press  and  mount  them  on  cardboard.  When  studying 
grasses  in  the  laboratory  observe  their  characteristics  by  examining 
these  mounted  specimens.  Write  descriptions  and  make  drawings  of 
the  plants. 

6.  Collection  of  seed.  —  The  seeds  of  the  chief  grasses  and  the  weed 
seed  commonly  found  with  the  grass  seed  should  be  available  for  study 
in  every  school-room  where  secondary  agriculture  is  taught,  and  these 
collections  should  be  made  by  the  pupils.  To  care  for  such  samples 
properly  some  kind  of  a  case  is  necessary  in  which  to  store  the  seeds. 
The  following  description  of  a  seed  case  from  Department  Bulletin  527 
prepared  by  the  author  for  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 


180 


Effective  Farming 


ture  will  enable  a  pupil  who  is  handy  with  tools  to  make  a  case  for  use 
in  the  school-room : 

"Figure  76  shows  a  convenient  case  in  which  small  bottles  of  seeds  may 
be  stored.  The  bottles  are  straight  sided,  I  inch  in  diameter  and  2\ 
inches  deep ;  they  can  be  purchased  at  drug  stores  for  about  10  cents 
a  dozen.     The  material  required  for  making  the  case  is  a  piece  of  white 


<1  ^  kJ^  ^*-7|>. 


-H^>H/^>M'H 


^1 


Tor  i^mv 


iL 

1  r 

1  i 

.Jl 

1  j 

1  1 
.i  I. 

i  L 

.J  I. 

J  I 

1  I 

I 

1 1 

1 1 

Jj  IL 

Jj  lL 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

J_ 

<— /s^^ > 

y 
^ 

_J 


'/f^ 


f 


r/fO/VT  l//^W  CM?  /£IV 

Fig.  76.  —  Case  for  storing  bottles  of  seeds. 

pine  2  inches  by  4  inches  by  20  inches.  Finish  the  piece  to  the  dimen- 
sions shown  in  the  drawing,  If  by  3  by  19^  inches.  Gauge  two  lines 
T^  inch  from  both  sides  on  one  edge.  On  these  gauge  lines  lay  ofif  cen- 
ters for  holes  \\  inches  apart,  beginning  1^  inches  from  one  end. 
Place  the  piece,  with  a  strip  of  scrap  board  against  it  on  one  side,  in  a 
vise,  and  with  a  f  inch  bit  and  brace  bore  holes  2f  inches  deep  on  the 


Grasses  and  Sorghums  181 

centers  that  have  been  laid  off.  The  scrap  board  prevents  the  lumber 
from  slivering.  Bore  the  holes  straight  into  the  wood.  To  aid  in 
boring  the  holes  to  the  exact  depth  desired,  bore  a  f  inch  hole  lengthwise 
through  a  piece  of  scrap  lumber  1|  by  1^  by  4  inches,  and  slip  this  on 
the  shank  of  the  bit  to  form  a  collar ;  the  bit  should  extend  2|  inches 
beyond  the  collar.  Bore  a  trial  hole  in  a  piece  of  scrap  lumber  with 
this  collar  on  the  bit ;  if  the  hole  is  too  shallow,  cut  off  the  end  of  the 
collar  to  get  the  correct  length ;  if  the  hole  is  too  deep,  make  another 
collar.  After  the  holes  are  bored,  trim  the  edges  along  the  side  of  the 
piece  until  each  opening  is  f  inch  wide.  Bore  and  trim  up  the  holes 
on  the  other  side  of  the  piece  in  the  same  manner.  Paint  or  stain  the 
case ;   this  will  improve  its  appearance  as  well  as  preserve  the  wood." 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.    II,  pp.  365- 

377  ;    434-455  ;    574-582.     The  Maemillan  Co. 
Livingston,  George,  Field  Crop  Productions.     The  Maemillan  Co. 
F'armers'  Bulletin  174,  Broom  Corn. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  786,  Dwarf  Broom  Corn. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  246,  Saccharine  Sorghums  for  Forage. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  470,  Sorghum  Sirup  Manufacture. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  288,  The  Non-saccharine  Sorghums. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  686,  Uses  of  Sorghum  Grain. 
Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1913,  pp.  221-238,  The 

Grain  Sorghums  :    Immigrant  Crops  That  Have  Made  Good. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  508,  Market  Hay. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  838,  Harvesting  Hay  with  the  Sweep- Rake. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  818,  Bermuda  Grass. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  677,  Growing  Hay  in  the  South  for  Market. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  793,  Foxtail  Millet. 


CHAPTER  IX 

LEGUMES 

Description  of  legumes. 
Uses  of  legumes. 
Legumes  for  forage. 

Red  clover,  alsike  clover,  crimson  clover,  white  clover,  alfalfa, 

bur  clovers,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  field  peas,  vetches,  Japan 

clover,  peanuts. 

When  studying  soils  we  learned  the  great  value  of  legumes 
for  soil  improvement  by  reason  of  the  nitrogen  that  is  converted 
into  an  available  form  by  the  bacteria  on  the  roots.  As  hay 
and  pasture  plants,  also,  the  legumes  rank  high  and  when  grown 
with  grasses,  especially  in  pastures,  the  mixture  makes  a  feed 
much  relished  by  live-stock,  and  the  food  value  is  high.  Many 
of  the  leguminous  crops  yield  important  human  food,  as  lentils 
and  the  different  kinds  of  beans  and  peas.  The  value  of  leg- 
umes both  from  the  soil-improvement  and  the  crop-producing 
standpoint  is  indeed  very  high  and  farmers  could  ill  afford  to 
do  without  them.  The  role  of  the  legumes  in  nitrogen-gather- 
ing is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  of  modern  contributions  to 
agriculture. 

105.  Description.  —  The  legumes,  or  pulse  plants,  are  among 
the  most  useful  of  the  cultivated  plants.  There  are  some 
ten  thousand  species,  varying  in  size  from  small  herbs  to  large 
trees.  Those  of  most  importance  to  the  farmer  are  herbaceous 
plants  that  belong  to  the  Papilionaceae,  or  pea,  sub-family. 
This  name  was  given  because  of  the  resemblance  of  the  flowers 
to  a  butterfly,  the  Latin  name  of  the  butterfly  being  papilio. 

The  flowers  are  arranged  differently  in  the  various  species. 
They  may  be  single  as  in  the  cowpea,  distributed  along  the 

182 


Legumes  183 

stem  as  in  the  vetches,  in  an  umbel  at  the  end  of  the  branch 
as  in  the  red  clover,  or  in  a  spike  as  in  the  crimson  clover.  When 
arranged  in  an  umbel  or  a  spike,  each  of  the  single  flowers  has 
the  butterfly-like  appearance. 

The  leaves  of  legumes  are  made  up  of  three  or  more  leaflets 
carried  on  a  stalk,  or  petiole.  Unlike  the  grasses,  the  legumes 
have  a  tap-root,  which  varies  in  depth  and  in  methods  of  branch- 
ing. The  fruit  is  a  pod,  or  legume,  and  it  is  from  the  form  of 
the  fruit  that  the  family  of  plants  derives  its  name. 

106.  Uses  of  legumes.  —  One  of  the  chief  uses  of  legumes 
is  for  hay.  Each  section  of  the  country  has  a  variety  that  can 
be  grown  profitably  for  this  purpose.  Legumes  are  valuable 
hay  plants  because  they  are  rich  in  protein.  Hay  from  grasses, 
on  the  contrary,  is  relatively  poor  in  protein.  In  forming  ra- 
tions for  live-stock,  it  is  often  advantageous  to  mix  the  hays 
from  the  two  kinds  of  plants  in  order  to  balance  the  protein- 
content.     Often  the  two  are  seeded  together. 

In  addition  to  use  as  hay,  legumes  occupy  an  important  place 
as  pasture  plants.  White  clover,  where  it  will  grow,  is  the  most 
valuable  legume  for  pastures.  It  has  the  creeping  habit  and 
when  once  established  will  soon  spread,  occupying  much  of 
the  land  together  with  the  grasses.  It  stands  grazing  well, 
which  is  an  important  quahty  in  a  pasture  plant.  Japan  clover 
and  bur  clover  hold  much  the  same  place  in  the  South  as  a 
pasture  plant  as  white  clover  does  in  the  North.  Red  and  alsike 
clovers  are  used  for  pasture  purposes,  but  these  plants  are 
grown  principally  for  hay  and  the  fields  are  used  for  pasture 
after  the  hay  has  been  cut.  In  some  sections  alfalfa  fields 
after  the  hay  has  been  cut  are  used  as  pasture,  especially  for 
swine. 

Legumes  are  also  used  in  making  lawns.  White  clover  is 
the  chief  sort  for  this  purpose.  Its  seed  is  sown  with  the  grass 
seed  and  the  plants  come  up  quickly,  occupying  much  of  the 
land  the  first  season.  In  later  seasons  part  of  them  disappear 
and  the  grass  becomes  established. 


184 


Effective  Farming 


The  seeds  of  many  of  the  legumes  are  of  use  as  human  food. 
Beans,  peas,  peanuts,  and  some  varieties  of  cowpeas  and  soy- 
beans are  the  chief  legumes  grown  for  this  purpose.  The 
seeds  are  rich  in  protein. 

Another  very  important  use  of  legumes  is  as  soil  improvers. 
Legumes,  whether  grown  for  forage,  seeds,  or  for  turning  under 

as  green-manure  crops, 
are  of  benefit  to  the  soil 
and  their  great  impor- 
tance to  permanent  soil 
fertility  must  not  be  lost 
sight  of  by  the  American 
farmer  if  the  fertility  and 
productivity  of  the  lands 
are  to  be  maintained. 

107.  Legumes  for  for- 
age. —  Many  species  and 
varieties  of  legumes  are 
under  cultivation  in  the 
United  States.  Some 
grow  much  better  in  some 
sections  than  in  others, 
but  there  is  a  variety 
adapted  to  every  sec- 
tion. Among  the  chief 
legumes  grown  for  forage 
are  red  clover,  alsike 
clover,  crimson  clover,  white  clover,  alfalfa,  bur  clover,  field 
peas,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  vetches,  sweet  clover,  Japanese  clover, 
Florida  beggar-weed,  velvet  beans,  and  peanuts. 

Red  clover.  —  The  most  important  leguminous  forage  crop  in 
the  United  States  is  red  clover  (Fig.  77).  It  is  easily  grown, 
is  well  adapted  to  crop  rotation,  and  grows  well  with  timothy, 
the  chief  grass  used  for  hay.  It  has  been  for  a  long  time  a 
stable  hay  crop  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States. 


Fig.  77.  —  Red  clover,  the  most  important 
leguminous  forage  crop  of  the  United  States. 


Legumes  185 

It  grows  best  in  the  timothy  section,  but  is  also  cultivated 
extensively  as  far  south  as  Tennessee,  as  far  north  as  Ontario 
and  Quebec,  Canada,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Dakotas.  It  is 
grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  Northwestern  States  and  in 
certain  sections  of  the  South. 

Well-drained,  fertile  soils  of  almost  any  type  are  suitable  for 
red  clover,  provided  they  are  not  acid.  The  crop  does  very 
poorly  on  acid  soils  and  liming  is  often  necessary  to  secure  a 
good  stand.  Frequently  soils  that  formerly  produced  red  clover 
profitably  now  fail  to  grow  the  crop,  usually  because  of  the 
need  of  lime. 

In  the  North  red  clover  seed  is  usually  planted  in  the  early 
spring.  One  practice  is  to  seed  the  land  that  has  been  planted 
to  grain  in  the  fall  to  clover.  When  such  fields  are  to  be  planted, 
the  clover  seed  is  broadcasted  on  the  growing  grain  very  early 
in  the  spring ;  often  it  is  sown  when  a  late  snow  covers  the  field. 
The  soil  is  full  of  cracks  at  this  season  and  the  seed  will  sink 
into  the  ground  and  be  covered  with  soil  that  is  washed  on  it 
by  the  spring  rains.  Another  practice  is  to  sow  the  seed  with 
spring  grain ;  in  this  case  it  is  seeded  at  the  same  time  as  the 
grain.  Where  the  young  clover  plant  can  stand  the  winter, 
the  seed  is  often  fall-sown.  This  is  practiced  as  far  north  as  the 
central  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  The  first  week  in  August 
is  considered  to  be  the  latest  that  it  should  be  sown  for  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Ohio  conditions. 

The  harvesting  of  red  clover  for  hay  requires  much  care  in 
order  not  to  lose  the  leaves  and  blossoms.  The  maximum  yield 
is  secured  if  the  plants  are  cut  when  in  full  bloom.  When  grown 
with  timothy,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  cut  the  clover  at  this 
stage.  The  timothy  is  usually  about  two  weeks  later  in  matur- 
ing and  the  clover  will  have  lost  some  of  its  quality  when  the 
timothy  is  ready  to  cut.  To  avoid  much  loss  of  the  leaves 
and  blossoms,  red  clover  or  timothy  containing  a  large  propor- 
tion of  red  clover  should  be  handled  as  Httle  as  possible  when 
making  the  hay.     Usually  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  the  hay 


186 


Effective  Farming 


up  in  cocks  before  the  leaves  become  very  dry,  as  they  will 
then  dry  out  more  slowly  and  will  be  more  Ukely  to  remain 
on  the  stems. 

Red  clover  seed  often  contains  many  weed  seeds  and  it  is 
necessary  for  farmers  to  examine  carefully  the  seed  that  is 
offered  for  sale  by  dealers.     The  examination  of  a  small  sample 

with  a  hand  lens  will  often 
reveal  many  weed  seeds. 

Alsike  clover. — The  stems 
of  alsike  clover  are  about  as 
tall  as  those  of  red  clover 
and  its  blossoms  are  about 
the  same  size  and  shape  as 
white  clover,  but  are  pinkish 
in  color.  The  leaves  are 
similar  to  those  of  white 
clover,  but  are  without  the 
white  crescent-shaped 
marks.  (See  the  description 
of  white  clover.)  Alsike 
clover  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  red  clover.  It 
grows  best  in  a  cool  chmate 
and  on  moist  soil,  but  it  will 
grow  farther  south  and 
farther  north  than  red  clover  and  in  soils  too  wet  and  too  acid 
for  the  latter.  Often  the  seed  is  sown  in  mixtures  with  red 
clover  and  timothy.  The  yield  of  alsike  clover  hay  is  some- 
what less  than  that  of  red  clover  hay  and  as  a  result  the  latter 
is  preferred  where  it  will  grow. 

Crimson  clover.  —  In  the  South  an  important  crop  for  hay 
and  green-manure  is  crimson  clover  (Fig.  78).  In  most  varieties 
the  blossoms  are  crimson  or  scarlet,  cone-shaped,  an  inch  or 
even  two  inches  long.  A  variety  with  white  blossoms  is  offered 
by  seedsmen  and  grown  to  a  Umited  extent.     As  usually  grown, 


Fig. 


78.  —  Crimson  clover,  an  important 
crop  in  the  South. 


Legumes 


187 


the  seed  is  planted  in  the  fall  and  the  plants  harvested  the  next 
spring.  The  crop  is  grown  principally  from  New  Jersey  south- 
ward. The  chief  use  is  as  a  green-manure  crop,  as  described 
previously.  Nevertheless,  it  is  used  largely  as  hay  and  when 
cut  the  plants  should  be  harvested  before  the  stems  become  too 
woody.  The  leaves  and  stems  are  covered  with  fine  hairs  and 
if  the  plants  are  woody 
before  they  are  cut, 
masses  of  hair  are  Hkely 
to  form  in  the  stomach 
and  intestines  of  ani- 
mals that  eat  the  hay 
and  in  some  instances 
have  been  known  to 
cause  death. 

White  clover. — Dutch, 
or  white,  clover  has 
the  creeping  habit,  a 
quality  desirable  in  pas- 
ture and  lawn  plants. 
The  blossoms  are  white 
and  the  leaves  are 
marked  with  a  white 
crescent-shaped  mark. 
The  plant  has  a  wide 
adaption  and  grows 
wherever  red  or  alsike 


Fig.  79.- 


Alfalfa,  the  chief  forage  crop  of  the 
West. 


clover  thrives  and  also  much  farther  south.  In  the  northern 
part  of  the  cotton-belt  it  often  survives  the  summers. 

Alfalfa.  —  In  the  western  half  of  the  United  States,  alfalfa 
(Fig.  79)  is  the  most  important  forage  crop.  It  is  also  culti- 
vated to  a  limited  extent  in  certain  sections  of  the  East  and 
South,  where,  when  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  favorable, 
it  makes  a  profitable  stand. 

Alfalfa  is  a  strongly  branching  perennial  that  when  mature 


188 


Effective  Farming 


often  reaches  the  height  of  four  feet.  Stems  branch  from  the 
crown,  or  top  of  the  tap-root,  and  also  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  stem.  The  number  of  stems  varies  from  three  to  fifteen. 
The  roots  are  longer  than  those  of  any  other  cultivated  herba- 
ceous plant.  In  the  West  on  deep  soil  they  have  been  known 
to  reach  a  length  of  thirty  feet,  while  in  the  East  where  red  clover 
roots  would  go  to  a  depth  of  five  feet,  alfalfa  roots  would  be 


An  alfalfa  field . 


about  eight  or  ten  feet  long.  The  leaves  are  smaller  than 
those  of  red  clover  and  somewhat  more  pointed  and  the  flowers 
are  purple  and  arranged  in  rather  long  clusters. 

In  semi-arid  countries  alfalfa  has  been  known  to  live  fifty 
years  and  in  the  humid  climate  of  the  East  and  South  fields 
will  be  profitable  from  five  to  eight  years  without  replanting. 
Several  cuttings  of  hay  can  be  secured  each  year ;  in  the  East 
at  least  three  are  usually  made  and  in  the  South  and  parts  of 
the  West  five  are  possible.  A  total  yearly  acre-production  of 
four  to  eight  tons  of  hay  is  often  secured.     Fig.  80  shows  a 


Legumes 


189 


field  of  alfalfa  being  cut.  Notice  the  quantity  of  forage.  Be- 
cause of  the  long  life  of  the  plant  and  the  fact  that  so  much  hay 
can  be  cut  annually,  farmers  in  the  East  and  South  often  go  to 
considerable  trouble  and  expense  in  their  efforts  to  grow  the  crop. 

Alfalfa  seems  to  prefer  a  loose,  deep  soil ;  however,  good  crops 
have  been  grown  on  fairly  heavy  soils.  The  soils  must  be  well 
drained.  The  water-level 
should  be  at  least  two 
feet  below  the  surface  and 
preferably  three  or  four 
feet  or  more.  Fertility 
of  soil  is  an  important 
factor;  it  never  pays  to 
try  to  secure  a  stand  of 
alfalfa  on  poor  soil. 
Also,  sour  soils  should 
be  avoided.  Like  red 
clover,  alfalfa  will  not 
make  satisfactory  growth 
on  such  soils  and  often 
the  reason  for  a  poor 
stand  is  that  the  soil  was 
not  sufficiently  limed  be- 
fore seed  planting. 

In  addition  to  its  use 
as    a    hay,    alfalfa    is   a 
valuable  soiling  crop.     It 
makes  so  many  cuttings 
furnish  green  feed  for  a 


Fig.  81.  —  Spotted  bur  clover. 


a  season  that  a  small  acreage  will 
large  number  of  cattle.     It  is  used 

to  some  extent  as  a  pasture  for  hogs,  but  not  often  for  cattle. 

When  pasturing  a  piece  of  alfalfa,  care  should  be  taken  that  it 

is  not  closely  grazed,  for  if  so  the  new  growth  may  be  injured. 

Like  red  clover,  alfalfa  seed  often  contain  impurities  and  this 

should  be  kept  in  mind  by  purchasers. 

Bur    clovers.  —  Although    called    clovers,    the    bur    clovers 


190 


Effective  Farming 


belong  to  a  different  family  and  are  related  to  alfalfa.  Two 
kinds  are  grown  in  the  United  States,  the  spotted,  or  southern 
(Fig.  81),  and  the  toothed,  or  CaUfornia  (Fig.  82).     The  spotted 

variety  is  distinguished  by  a 
purple  spot  in  the  center  of 
each  leaflet,  the  toothed  by  the 
edges  of  the  leaves.  The  bur 
clovers  are  low-growing  plants 
that  spread  out  on  the  ground 
unless  seeded  thickly  or  grown 
with  grasses.  They  are  adapted 
to  regions  with  mild,  moist 
winters.  They  find  their 
greatest  usefulness  in  this 
country  in  the  Gulf  Coast 
States,  except  Florida,  and 
along  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  best  time  for  planting 
in  the  South  is  September,  but 
seedings  as  early  as  August  or 
as  late  as  December  often  give 
fair  results.  Either  hulled  or 
unhuUed  seeds  may  be  sown,  but  as  the  hulled  seeds  germinate 
more  readily  planting  may  be  delayed  about  two  to  four  weeks 
if  this  kind  is  used.  The  usual  time  for  planting  in  CaUfornia 
is  the  first  part  of  October. 

Bur  clovers  are  grown  for  hay,  for  pasture,  and  for  green- 
manure.  When  grown  for  hay,  a  dense  stand  is  necessary  to 
secure  a  crop,  because  of  the  trailing  habits  of  the  vines.  Often 
the  seed  is  sown  with  oats  or  wheat,  as  the  plants  then  have 
the  tendency  to  grow  erect.  For  pasture  purposes  bur  clovers 
are  used  for  hogs,  cattle,  sheep,  and  poultry ;  horses  and  mules 
do  not  eat  them.  In  the  South  a  mixture  of  bur  clover  and  Ber- 
muda-grass is  very  satisfactory  for  pasture.  Its  use  as  green- 
manure  is  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter. 


Fig.  82.  —  Toothed  bur  clover. 


Legumes 


191 


Cowpeas.  —  The  most  important  legume  grown  in  the  South 
is  the  cowpea  (Fig,  83).  It  has  been  cultivated  for  a  long  time 
in  Europe,  but  has  been  of  importance  in  the  United  States 
only  for  about  the  past  hundred  years.  It  is  of  tropical  origin 
and  does  best  in  warm  climates  having  a  long  growing  season. 


Fig.  83.  —  Cowpeas. 

The  plants  are  used  for  hay,  for  pasture,  for  green-manure, 
and  for  the  seeds.  The  hay  is  about  equal  in  value  to  alfalfa 
hay,  but  it  is  somewhat  less  palatable.  Cowpeas  do  not  make 
a  very  good  pasture,  but  are  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose 
for  sheep  and  hogs.  As  a  green-manure  crop  they  are  especially 
valuable.  In  the  South  the  seeds  of  some  of  the  many  varieties 
are  often  harvested  for  human  food.     They  make  a  palatable 


192 


Effective  Farming 


dish  and,  like  garden   peas   and   garden   beans,    are   rich   in 
protein. 

The  usual  ways  of  planting  cowpeas  are  broadcasting,  seed- 
ing in  rows  about  thirty-six  inches  apart,  and  sowing  with  other 
seeds  such  as  corn,  sorghum,  or  millet.     When  the  crop  is  to 

be  turned  under  for 
green-manure  the  seeds 
are  generally  broad- 
casted. When  sown 
with  corn  they  may  be 
drilled  in  when  the  corn 
is  planted  or  their  plant- 
ing may  be  delayed  until 
after  the  last  cultivation 
of  corn  when  they  may 
be  broadcasted  or  a  row 
drilled  in  next  to  the 
corn.  When  sown  with 
sorghum  or  millet  they 
are  broadcasted  with 
the  seeds  of  these  plants 
and  the  whole  crop 
harvested  for  hay.  The 
mixed  planting  makes 
a  hay  crop  easier  to  cure 
than  when  the  cowpeas 
are  sown  alone. 


Fm.  84.  —  Soybeans. 


Soybeans.  —  The  soybean  (Fig.  84)  is  an  erect-growing,  bushy 
plant  that  reaches  a  height  varying  usually  from  two  to  three 
and  one-half  feet.  These  plants  are  valuable  for  forage  and 
for  green-manure  and  the  seeds  are  used  for  human  food.  They 
are  hot-weather  plants  like  cowpeas,  but  can  be  grown  about 
three  hundred  miles  farther  north.  They  do  well  in  a  humid 
climate,  but  they  also  have  drought-resistant  qualities  that 
make  them  useful  in  regions  having  hot,  dry  summers.     In 


Legumes  193 

general  it  may  be  said  that  soybeans  will  prosper  wherever 
corn  can  be  grown  profitably.  When  the  crop  is  to  be  used  for 
hay,  the  plants  should  be  cut  before  the  leaves  are  very  mature ; 
if  allowed  to  stand  too  long  before  cutting,  the  leaves  will  drop 
off  in  curing  and  the  stems  will  be  woody.  The  soybean  can 
be  used  successfully  for  soiling  purposes ;  by  planting  several 
varieties  that  mature  at  different  times,  a  succession  of  green 
crops  can  be  obtained.  The  crop  is  sometimes  pastured,  but 
like  cowpeas  is  not  especially  valuable  for  this  purpose.  In 
many  sections,  especially  in  the  South,  the  seeds  are  ground 
and  the  oil  extracted.  The  oil,  meal,  and  cake  are  used  in  the 
same  way  as  cotton-seed  products.  The  methods  of  planting 
and  of  harvesting  are  similar  to  those  followed  for  cowpeas. 

Field  peas.  —  With  the  exception  of  colored  flowers  and  the 
seeds  inclined  to  be  yellow,  field  peas  are  much  like  garden 
peas.  They  are  grown  most  successfully  in  regions  having  a 
cool  summer  and  reach  their  best  development  in  Canada  and 
the  northern  part  of  United  States.  Wisconsin,  Michigan, 
Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  the  high  valleys  of  Colorado 
produce  most  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States.  The  seed  is 
usually  sown  with  oats.  The  combination  is  used  mostly  for 
green-manure,  soiling  crops,  or  hay,  but  the  plants  are  some- 
times allowed  to  mature  and  the  grains  harvested  together. 

Vetches.  —  The  types  of  vetches  have  been  described  on 
previous  pages.  In  addition  to  use  as  green-manure,  they  are 
sown  for  hay  and  soiling  crops.  When  intended  for  hay, 
vetch  is  usually  seeded  with  a  cereal,  because  of  the  trailing 
habits  of  the  plants.  Seeded  in  the  fall  with  rye  or  wheat, 
vetch  produces  an  excellent  soiling  crop  for  use  in  the  early 
spring. 

Japan  clover.  —  The  legume  known  as  Japan  clover  is  an 
annual,  usually  from  eight  to  ten  inches  high,  sometimes  under 
favorable  conditions  reaching  a  height  of  fifteen  inches.  It  is 
not  a  clover  as  the  name  seems  to  indicate,  but  belongs  to  a 
different  subclass  of  plants.     Its  chief  use  is  for  pasture  in  the 


194 


Effective  Farming 


South,  where  it  grows  well  with  Bermuda-grass.  A  mixture 
of  Bermuda-grass,  bur  clover,  and  Japan  clover  will  furnish 
a  year-round  pasture.  When  grown  on  rich  land,  Japan  clover 
will  make  a  good  hay  crop,  often  yielding  as  high  as  two  tons 
an  acre. 

Peanuts.  —  The  peanut  is  an  important  farm  crop  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  South.      A  few  counties  in  eastern  North 

Carolina  and  southeastern 
Virginia  produce  somewhat 
over  half  of  the  commercial 
crop  of  the  United  States. 
Peanuts  are  grown,  however, 
to  a  limited  extent  in  a  wide 
range  of  territory  in  the 
South.  The  plant  belongs 
to  the  pea  sub-family.  It 
bears  its  seed,  the  ''nuts," 
underground.  The  flowers 
are  borne  on  short  stems  and 
when  the  petals  fade  the 
stems  elongate  and  turn 
downward  ;  the  pistil,  which 
is  pointed,  passes  into  the 
soil  where  the  ovary  develops 
into  the  pod.  In  case  the 
pistil  fails  to  penetrate  the 
soil,  no  fruit  will  be  formed.  The  pod  contains  from  one  to 
four  seeds.  A  root  of  a  peanut  plant  with  the  stems  and  nuts 
is  shown  in  Fig.  85.  There  are  two  general  types  of  these 
nuts.  One  has  large  pods  and  either  spreading  or  upright 
vines;  the  other  has  small  pods  and  compact,  upright  vines. 
Virginia  Runner  and  Virginia  Bunch  (Fig.  86)  are  large- 
podded  varieties.  The  former  has  prostrate  stems  and  the 
latter  upright  stems.  The  Spanish  is  a  small-podded  variety. 
The  peanut  is  a  valuable  human  food.     The  roasted  un- 


y^                 ^^        /^Bf 

\    \ 

^M 

^1 

1) 

Fig.  85. 


Base  of  peanut  plant,  showing 
the  nuts. 


Legumes 


195 


shelled  nuts  and  the  shelled  salted  nuts  are  familiar  to  all. 
Peanut-butter,  a  food  manufactured  from  the  kernels,  has  the 
valuable  property  of  not  becoming  rancid.  In  foreign  countries 
the  oil  is  extracted  from  the  kernels  and  is  used  as  an  article 
of  commerce.  It  has  about  the  same  uses  as  cottonseed  oil. 
The  peanut  cake  which  results  from  the  extraction  of  the  oil 
is  a  valuable  hve-stock  feed.  In  the  United  States  the  oil 
industry  has  not  been  developed  extensively,  although  the  cot- 


FiG.  86.  —  Virginia  Bunch  peanuts. 


tonseed  oil  mills  are  now  beginning  to  crush  some  of  the  nuts 
for  southern  farmers. 

In  many  sections  the  chief  use  of  peanuts  is  as  a  live-stock 
feed.  Often  seed  are  planted  as  a  catch  crop  between  the  rows 
of  corn  at  the  last  cultivation.  The  corn  is  husked  from  the 
standing  stalks  a^d  cattle  are  turned  into  the  field  to  forage  for 
the  leaves  of  corn  and  the  peanut  vines.  Later  hogs  are  turned 
into  the  fields  to  eat  the  peanuts.  They  will  harvest  them  by 
rooting  them  from  the  ground.  When  peanuts  are  grown  for 
market,  the  vines  are  useful  as  forage.  Their  feeding  value 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  clover  hay. 


196  Effective  Farming 

When  grown  for  the  nuts,  a  hght,  sandy  or  loamy  soil  is 
preferred.  Such  soils  are  easy  to  keep  in  good  tilth,  a  condi- 
tion necessary  in  order  that  the  pistil  can  enter  the  soil  easily. 
When  grown  on  the  red  soils  so  prevalent  in  the  South, 
the  hulls  are  likely  to  be  stained,  which  injures  the  market 
value  of  the  nuts.  If  grown  for  stock-feeding,  however,  the 
staining  of  the  shell  is  of  no  consequence. 

The  land  to  be  planted  to  peanuts  should  not  be  weedy  and 
for  this  -  reason  it  is  well  to  have  the  crop  follow  a  cultivated 
one  like  cotton  or  corn.  Fertilizers  are  used  with  good  results. 
Phosphoric  acid  seems  to  be  the  chief  ingredient  necessary  and 
potash  next.  The  nitrogen-content  is  generally  rather  low. 
The  usual  mixture  when  potash  can  be  secured  cheaply  con- 
tains about  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  to  10  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid,  and  6  per  cent  potash.  From  three  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred pounds  an  acre  is  the  general  application.  Like  some  other 
legumes,  peanuts  do  very  poorly  on  sour  soils  and  in  the  region 
in  which  they  are  most  grown  an  occasional  liming  is  profitable. 

The  upright  varieties  are  usually  planted  in  rows  thirty 
inches  apart  and  the  spreading  varieties  in  rows  thirty-six 
inches  apart.  In  the  rows  the  former  are  spaced  seven  or  eight 
inches  and  the  latter,  at  least  twelve  inches.  The  small-podded 
varieties  are  usually  planted  in  the  pod ;  the  larger  ones  are 
shelled.  Special  planters  are  in  use  in  regions  where  the  pea- 
nut industry  is  extensive.  About  two  bushels  of  seed  an  acre 
are  required  when  the  nuts  are  planted  in  the  pods  and  about 
a  half  bushel  when  shelled  nuts  are  planted.  From  one  and 
one-half  to  two  inches  is  the  usual  depth  of  planting,  but  this 
varies  somewhat  with  the  soil  and  the  time  of  planting. 

Peanuts  should  be  dug  before  frost.  September  and  October 
are  the  months  when  most  of  the  harvesting  is  done.  The  usual 
method  is  to  remove  the  moldboard  from  a  plow  and  run  this 
plow  along  each  side  of  the  row  with  the  moldboard  side  next 
to  the  row.  This  cuts  off  the  roots  without  turning  a  furrow. 
The  plants  are  then  lifted  with  forks  or  by  hand  and  thrown 


Legumes 


197 


into  piles.  The  vines  are  allowed  to  lie  for  a  few  hours  in  these 
piles  and  are  stacked  usually  on  the  same  day  that  they  are 
dug.  The  stacks  are  narrow  and  five  or  six  feet  high  and  are 
built  around  a  central  pole  which  has  been  driven  into  the 
ground.  At  the  base  of  the  pole,  cross  sticks  are  nailed  to  keep 
the  peanuts  off  the  ground.  The  vines  are  piled  with  the 
nuts  toward  the  center,  space  being  left  around  the  pole  for 


Fig.  87.  —  Method  of  stacking  peanut  vines. 


ventilation.  The  stack  is  usually  capped  with  a  bunch  of  grass 
or  hay  to  shed  rain.  Fig.  87  shows  a  laborer  stacking  pea- 
nuts. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  briefly  the  flowers,  leaves,  pods,  and  roots  of  legumes. 

2.  In  what  sections  of  the  United  States  is  red  clover  the  chief 
legume  planted  for  forage  ? 

3.  Why  do  legumes  make  better  hay  for  dairy  cows  than  grasses? 

4.  Why  are  legumes  particularly  valuable  for  green-manure? 

5.  State  the  uses  of  legumes  other  than  for  hay. 


198  Effective  Farming 

6.  Often  an  application  of  lime  is  an  aid  in  getting  a  good  stand  of 
red  clover  or  alfalfa.     Why  is  this  ? 

7.  Why  are  weed  seeds  more  often  found  in  red  clover  seed  than  in 
grass  seed? 

8.  Describe  the  alsike  clover  plant  and  compare  with  red  clover. 

9.  Why  is  white  clover  so  well  adapted  for  lawns  and  pastures? 

10.  Describe  the  alfalfa  plant. 

11.  Give  some  of  the  qualities  of  alfalfa  that  make  it  a  valuable 
forage  plant. 

12.  What  are  the  usual  ways  of  planting  cowpeas? 

13.  Describe  the  method  of  planting  peanuts. 

14.  How  are  peanuts  harvested? 

15.  List  and  describe  th6  legumes  cultivated  in  your  section  of  the 
country. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Roots  of  legumes.  —  Dig  up  roots  of  several  different  kinds  of 
legumes,  wash  carefully,  and  examine  for  tubercules.  Are  they  all  of 
the  same  size?  Describe  the  root  system  of  legumes  and  compare  it 
with  that  of  grasses. 

2.  Testing  legume  seeds  for  germination.  —  Secure  seeds  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  legumes  and  test  them  for  the  percentage  of  germination 
as  directed  for  grasses. 

3.  Purity  of  legume  seeds.  —  Small  seeds  like  those  of  alfalfa  and 
red  clover  often  contain  many  weed  seeds.  Examine  samples  care- 
fully as  directed  for  grasses.  Learn  to  identify  the  common  weed  seeds 
usually  found  with  the  legume  seeds. 

4.  Experiment  with  red  clover.  —  In  the  red-clover  region  a  very 
interesting  and  instructive  experiment  can  be  made  by  pupils  to  de- 
termine the  advantage  of  liming  the  soil,  especially  if  the  soil  is  inclined 
to  be  acid.  Lay  off  two  plots  of  a  square  rod  each  in  the  school  yard 
or  on  a  near-by  farm.  Prepare  the  soil  for  planting  by  spading  and 
raking  it  well.  On  one  plot  spread  twenty-five  pounds  of  ground 
limestone  (how  much  is  this  an  acre?).  Leave  the  other  plot  untreated. 
Sow  red  clover  seed  on  both  plots  and  observe  the  results.  Often  but 
little  difference  will  be  seen  until  the  second  year. 

5.  Experiment  with  alfalfa.  —  In  the  East  and  South  where  alfalfa 
is  not  particularly  well  adapted  to  conditions,  a  plot  experiment  carried 
out  as  here  directed  will  be  a  good  indication  of  whether  or  not  this 
crop  can  be  grown  profitably  and  how  the  land  should  be  treated.  Ar- 
range four  rod-square  plots  and  prepare  the  soil  carefully  for  planting 
as  directed  for  red   clover.     To  plot  1   apply  twenty-five  pounds  of 


Legwnes  199 

ground  limestone.  To  plot  2  apply  the  same  quantity  of  limestone  and 
inoculate  the  soil  with  alfalfa  bacteria  by  spreading  on  it  soil  from  an 
old  alfalfa  field.  This  should  be  done  in  the  late  afternoon  or  on  a 
cloudy  day.  Why?  Inoculate  the  soil  in  plot  3,  but  do  not  treat  it 
with  lime.  Leave  plot  4  as  a  check  by  giving  it  neither  lime  nor  inocu- 
lation. Plant  the  seeds  and  observe  the  results  of  the  treatment  as  the 
crop  grows.  Draw  conclusions  as  to  the  best  way  to  treat  soil  for 
alfalfa  in  your  region. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  391-395. 

Also  special  articles  on  each  chief  leguminous  crop.     The  Mac- 

millan  Co. 
Montgomery,  E.  G.,  Productive  Farm  Crops.     The  Lippincott  Co. 
Livingston,  George,  Field  Crop  Production.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  455,  Red  Clover. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  550,  Crimson  Clover. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  646,  Crimson  Clover  :    Seed  Production. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  339,  Alfalfa. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  495,  Alfalfa  Seed  Production. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  693,  Bur  Clover. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  318,  Cowpeas. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  672,  Soybeans. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  515,  Vetches. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  690,  Field  Pea. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  431,  The  Peanut. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  441,  Lespedeza,  or  Japan  Clover. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  751,  Peanut  Oil. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  75,  Alfalfa  Seed  Production. 


CHAPTER  X 

POTATOES  . 

White  Potatoes 

Distribution  of  production. 

Yields. 

Climate  and  soils. 

Fertilizing  land. 

Planting. 

Quantity  and  size  of  seed  potatoes. 

Depth  of  planting. 
Cultivating  the  potato  fields. 
Harvesting  and  storing. 
Insect  pests. 

Colorado  potato-beetle. 

Flea-beetle. 
Diseases. 

Early  blight. 

Late  blight. 

Potato  scab. 

Sweet  Potatoes 
Distribution  and  use. 
Soils. 

Fertilizing  the  land. 
Cultural  methods. 
Harvesting  and  storing. 
Pests  of  the  sweet  potato. 

Root-borer. 

Black-rot. 

Potatoes  are  of  two  main  kinds  or  species,  —  the  white,  Irish, 
or  round  potatoes  grown  in  the  Northern  States  and  Canada 
and  in  the  Southern  States  as  a  cool-season  or  early  crop, 
and  the  sweet  potato,  grown  extensively  in  the  South.     Both 

200 


Potatoes  201 

of  them  are  staple  articles  of  food  in  North  America,  and  the 
white  potato  is  an  article  of  extensive  international  commerce. 
Every  day  in  practically  every  familj^  in  this  country  finds  on 
the  table  potatoes  of  one  kind  or  the  other  and  prepared  in 
many  different  ways.  To  grow  and  handle  these  crops  is  one 
of  the  primary  requirements  of  the  American  farmer.  The 
two  species  of  potatoes  require  very  different  culture  and 
handling,  to  which  we  may  now  give  attention. 

WHITE   POTATOES 

108.  Distribution  of  production.  —  Europe  is  first  in  white- 
potato  production,  supplying  about  90  per  cent  of  the  total 
crop  of  the  world.  North  America  comes  next,  with  about 
7  per  cent.  Asia,  Australia,  South  America,  and  Africa  fol- 
low, each  with  less  than  1  per  cent.  Germany  and  Russia 
produce  about  half  the  world's  crop.  In  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  1910  census,  the  chief  producing  states  in 
the  order  of  production  are  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maine, 
Michigan,  and  Ohio. 

109.  Yields.  —  The  average  acre-yield  of  white  potatoes 
in  the  United  States  is  about  eighty-five  to  ninety  bushels; 
that  of  Germany  is  two  hundred  bushels  and  of  France  one 
hundred  thirtj^- three  bushels.  The  highest  recorded  yield 
in  the  United  States  is  974.8  bushels.  From  a  comparison  of 
these  figures,  it  is  readily  seen  that  improvement  in  white- 
potato  production  in  the  United  States  is  very  possible. 

110.  Climate  and  soils.  —  The  white  potato  does  best  in 
the  cooler  parts  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  nights  should  be 
cool,  the  days  warm  and  sunshiny,  and  the  growing  season  free 
from  frost.  In  the  United  States  the  climatic  conditions  in 
the  Northeastern  States  are  well  suited  to  potatoes.  However, 
some  very  good  yields  are  secured  in  the  South. 

White  potatoes  are  grown  successfully  on  many  kinds  of 
soils.  They  do  best,  however,  on  loose,  well  drained,  fertile, 
sandy  loams.     On  loose  soils  the  crop  is  easy  to  plant,  culti- 


202  Effective  Farming 

vate,  and  harvest,  quick  to  mature,  and  the  tubers  are  likely 
to  be  of  good  quality. 

111.  Fertilizing,  land.  —  In  the  East  more  manure  and  com- 
mercial fertilizer  to  the  acre  are  used  for  white  potatoes  than 
for  any  other  farm  crop.  Often  as  high  as  one  thousand  to 
two  thousand  pounds  an  acre  of  commercial  fertilizer  are 
applied  to  the  soil.  The  fertilizer  should  be  high  in  the  mineral 
elements,  but  may  be  relatively  low  in  nitrogen.  A  formula 
much  used  in  the  Eastern  States  is  3-8-10.  Many  growers 
claim,  however,  that  this  is  too  high  in  potash.  During  the 
war  with  Germany,  with  potash  fertilizers  so  high  in  price  and 
difficult  to  secure,  growers  are  obliged  to  use  much  less  potash 
than  formerly ;  nevertheless  they  secure  good  results. 

112.  Planting.  —  The  time  for  planting  white  potatoes 
varies  with  the  climatic  conditions,  the  variety,  and  whether 
early  or  late  varieties  are  grown.  In  northern  sections  early 
varieties  are  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  prepared 
in  the  spring.  Late  varieties  are  usually  planted  in  May, 
although  in  some  sections  not  until  the  middle  of  June.  In 
the  South  for  the  first  crop,  potatoes  are  planted  from  February 
to  April,  according  to  conditions  and  the  late  crop,  from  about 
July  15  to  August  15. 

Quantity  and  size  of  seed  potatoes.  —  The  quantity  of  seed 
pieces  to  be  planted  to  the  acre  varies  with  the  distance  apart 
they  are  placed  and  with  the  method  adopted.  If  the  crop  is 
grown  in  drills  about  thirty  inches  apart  and  the  pieces  are 
fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  row,  about  seventeen  or  eighteen 
bushels  of  seed  pieces  are  necessary  for  each  acre.  If  grown  in 
hills  about  thirty-six  inches  apart,  about  twelve  bushels  are 
required. 

The  determination  of  the  best  size  of  seed  piece  has  been  the 
basis  of  many  experiments  and  the  results  seem  to  show  that 
a  three-ounce  piece  will  give  larger  yields  than  those  of  any 
other  size.  The  question,  also,  as  to  whether  whole  or  cut  seed 
should  be  used  is  of  importance.      For  the  main  crop  in  the 


Potatoes  203 

North,  cut  pieces  are  satisfactory;  in  the  South,  small  whole 
seed  potatoes  seem,  as  a  rule,  to  give  better  results.  This  is 
true  in  the  South  because  the  crop,  if  early,  is  planted  on 
cold  ground,  and  under  these  conditions  the  cut  seed  is  likely 
to  rot.  Still,  cut  seed  pieces  are  often  planted  with  good 
results. 

Depth  of  plonting.  —  Rather  deep  planting,  from  four  to  six 
inches,  is  advisable  under  most  conditions.     If  seed  are  planted 


Fig.  88.  —  Potato-planter — a  labor-saving  implement. 

too  shallow,  the  tubers  form  near  the  surface  and  many  are 
likely  to  become  sunburned  by  exposure.  Moreover  deep 
planting  usually  gives  better  yields  than  shallow  planting. 
In  some  sections  shallow  planting  is  practiced  and,  as  the 
plants  grow,  the  earth  is  ridged  up  over  the  roots  and  tubers. 
Figure  88  shows  a  much  used  type  of  potato-planter.  Such 
machines  are  effective  labor-savers  and  are  practicable  when 
large  areas  are  planted. 

113.  Cultivating  the  potato  fields.  —  Cultivation  is  one  of 
the  important  factors  in  white-potato  growing.  If  weeds 
appear  on  the  ground  or  a  crust  has  formed  on  the  soil,  a  har- 


204 


Effective  Farming 


row  or  a  weeder  should  be  used  before  the  plants  are  above  the 
ground,  and  these  implements  can  well  be  employed  until  the 
vines  are  six  inches  or  so  high.  Subsequent  cultivation  is 
usually  carried  on  with  the  horse-drawn  cultivators  used  for 


^^ 

^^r-    — 

wM 

M|||| 

^^^^^^H 

r 

,* 

^JaJ 

Sp* 

>',    ^  - 

«-- ^-mtK ...  aT' 

Fig.  89.  —  Green  Mcjuntain  potatoes. 

corn.  Implements  fitted  with  narrow  blades  give  good  results, 
as  they  make  a  fine,  even  surface  on  the  soil.  Several  culti- 
vations are  necessary  throughout  the  season ;  the  working  of 
the  soil  should  be  kept  up  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground. 
It  is  well  to  go  over  the  field  at  least  once  with  a  hoe  to  kill 
weeds  between  the  plants  in  the  row. 


Potatoes 


205 


114.  Harvesting  and  storing.  —  Much  of  the  white-potato 
crop  is  dug  by  hand  (Fig.  89)  with  a  potato  hook  or  a  spading 
fork.  Horse-drawn  diggers  are  used  where  large  acreages 
are  grown.  Of  these  there  are  several  types,  ranging  from  a 
plow  fitted  with  iron  rods  for  the  purpose  of  shaking  the  dirt 
from  the  tubers,  to  implements  like  the  one  shown  in  Fig. 
90,  that  dig,  ele- 
vate, and  deposit 
the  potatoes  on  the 
ground. 

A  large  part  of 
the  late  crop  is 
stored  for  use  in  the 
winter.  A  storage 
place  for  potatoes 
should  be  cool,  dry, 
and  well  ventilated 
and,  as  the  tubers 
freeze  easily,  the 
temperature  of  the 
storage  room  should 
never  be  down  to 
the  freezing  point.  From  40  to  50°  F.  is  a  good  range  of 
temperature  for  the  potato  storage  place.  When  a  cellar  is 
utilized,  it  should  be  kept  dark  and  be  provided  with  both 
an  intake  and  an  outtake  for  air ;  ventilation  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  storing  of  potatoes. 

115.  Insect  pests.  —  The  white  potato  is  subject  to  two 
troublesome  insect  pests,  the  Colorado  potato-beetle  and  the 
flea-beetle.  Of  these  the  Colorado  potato-beetle  does  the  most 
damage. 

Colorado  potato-beetle.  —  The  familiar  striped  potato-bug  is 
the  Colorado  potato-beetle.  The  female  lays  eggs  on  the 
leaves  of  the  plants.  Larvae  from  these  eggs  start  at  once  to 
eat  the  foliage  and  if  not  checked  will  soon  strip  the  plant  of 


Fig.  90.  —  Potato-digger. 


206  Effective  Farming 

its  leaves.  The  remedy  is  to  spray  the  vines  with  a  poison. 
Arsenate  of  lead  paste,  three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water, 
is  effective  or  one  pound  of  paris  green  to  fifty  gallons  of  water 
may  be  used,  although  with  paris  green  there  is  some  danger 
of  burning  the  leaves.  When  the  vines  are  sprayed  with  bor- 
deaux mixture  for  blight,  as  described  later,  poison  to  kill  the 
beetles  may  be  added  to  the  bordeaux,  thus  making  one  spray- 
ing answer  for  both  the  beetles  and  the  blight. 

Flea-beetle.  —  Small  flea-like  beetles  are  often  seen  on  the 
leaves  of  tomatoes  and  white  potatoes.  The  damage  is  done 
by  the  mature  insect  which  makes  holes  in  the  leaves,  thereby 
depriving  the  plant  of  a  part  of  the  foliage.  The  beetles  are 
not  readily  poisoned,  but  they  seem  to  be  repelled  by  bordeaux 
mixture  and,  therefore,  fields  that  have  been  sprayed  with  bor- 
deaux for  the  blight  are  not  usually  troubled  with  flea-beetles. 

116.  Diseases.  —  Troublesome  diseases  of  the  white  potato 
are  early  blight,  late  blight,  and  scab.  These  cause  a  large 
annual  money  loss  in  the  United  States,  much  of  which  could 
be  prevented  by  timely  spraying. 

Early  blight.  —  The  vines  in  the  early  or  middle  part  of  the 
summer  are  subject  to  attack  by  early  blight.  Small  brown 
spots  appear  on  the  leaves  and  later  they  enlarge  and  show 
rings  one  within  another.  Often  the  edges  of  the  leaves  die. 
Later  in  the  season  they  turn  yellow  ^and  the  plants  have  some- 
what the  appearance  that  the  vines  assume  when  they  are 
mature.  The  loss  of  the  foliage  causes  the  tubers  to  stop 
growing.  The  remedy  is  to  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture, 
but  the  spraying  to  be  effective  must  be  done  before  the  blight 
has  started.  Growers  in  regions  where  early  blight  is  preva- 
lent often  spray  the  vines  before  there  is  any  sign  of  the  dis- 
ease, this  being  considered  an  insurance. 

Late  blight.  —  In  leaves  of  plants  affected  with  late  blight, 
there  appear  dead  areas  usually  at  the  margin,  but  often  on 
any  part.  The  diseased  portion  may  be  brown  or  nearty 
black  and  a  disagreeable  odor  nearly  always  accompanies  it. 


Potatoes  207 

Often  there  appears  a  moldy,  downj^  growth  on  the  surface 
of  the  leaves.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  name,  downy  mildew, 
which  is  often  used  for  the  late  bUght.  The  spores  of  this 
white  growth  multiply  rapidly  and  are  easily  scattered  by  the 
wind,  which  is  one  reason  for  the  rapid  spreading  of  late  blight. 
The  remedy  is  to  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  and  to  be 
effective  the  spraying  should  be  done  early  in  the  season  before 
the  blight  starts.  In  New  York  late  blight  usually  occurs 
any  time  after  the  first  of  August.  In  regions  farther  south 
it  may  appear  earlier. 

Potato  scab.  —  The  chief  fungous  disease  that  attacks  the 
tubers  is  scab.  The  surface  of  a  scabby  potato  is  rough  and 
broken.  To  combat  the  disease  the  seed  pieces  are  disinfected 
before  they  are  planted.  This  is  usually  done  by  soaking  them 
for  two  hours  before  they  are  cut  in  a  solution  of  one-half  pint 
of  formalin  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water.  Another  method  is  to 
soak  them  for  an  hour  and  a  half  in  a  solution  of  bichloride  of 
mercury  made  by  dissolving  twelve  ounces  in  fifteen  gallons  of 
water. 

SWEET    POTATOES 

117.  Distribution  and  use.  —  Sweet  potatoes  are  of  tropical 
origin,  and  require  a  warm  climate.  The  bulk  of  the  commercial 
crop  is  grown  in  the  South ;  the  only  state  outside  of  that  sec- 
tion producing  any  large  quantity  is  New  Jersey.  The  states 
growing  large  crops  in  the  usual  order  of  the  amount  of  their 
production  are  Georgia,  North  CaroHna,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Tennessee,  and 
New  Jersey. 

Although  the  sweet  potato  is  a  perennial,  it  is  cultivated  as 
an  annual.  The  part  used  for  food  is  the  fleshy  root.  The 
plants  seldom  produce  flowers  or  seeds  and  they  are  propa- 
gated, except  in  the  case  of  new  varieties,  by  division.  The 
chief  use  of  the  roots  is  as  human  food,  but  they  are  sometimes 
fed  to  live-stock,  especially  hogs. 


208  Effective  Farming 

118.  Soils.  —  A  sandy  or  a  sandy  loam  soil  that  is  warm  and 
well  drained  is  best  for  sweet  potatoes.  On  wet  land  the  roots 
are  likely  to  be  coarse  and  of  poor  quality.  Although  often 
grown  on  heavy  soils,  the  crop  is  likely  to  be  late  and  not  of 
good  quality.  Also,  particles  of  the  soil  usually  adhere  to  the 
potatoes,  which  detracts  from  their  appearance.  If  clay  soils 
are  used,  they  should  be  well  supplied  with  humus,  as  this 
tends  to  lighten  them.  Humus  is  an  important  factor  on  light 
soils,  also,  and  should  always  be  plentifully  suppUed. 

119.  Fertilizing  the  land.  —  Commercial  fertilizer  is  profitably 
used  for  sweet  potatoes.  On  sandy  soils  potassium  is  of  chief 
importance  and  phosphorus  next.  A  large  proportion  of 
nitrogen  is  not  needed,  as  it  stimulates  too  much  vegetative 
growth.  The  general  formula  used  contains  about  1  or  2 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  6  to  8  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
8  to  10  per  cent  of  potash,  but  these  percentages  are  often 
varied  considerably,  depending  on  the  soil  and  the  price  of 
fertilizer  materials. 

Green-manuring  is  a  common  practice  on  sweet  potato  land, 
especially  in  the  South.  A  crop  of  crimson  clover  turned 
under  a  few  weeks  before  setting  the  plants  supplies  both  nitro- 
gen and  humus.  In  New  Jersey  barnyard  manure  is  often 
used,  but  in  the  South  manure  is  not  usually  available. 

120.  Cultural  methods.  —  The  crop  should  be  grown  in  a 
rotation  that  does  not  bring  it  on  the  piece  of  ground  oftener 
than  once  in  three  or  four  years.  This  aids  in  combating  a 
very  troublesome  disease  called  black-rot.  The  crop  should 
follow  a  cultivated  one  like  cotton  or  corn,  in  which  has  been 
sown  a  catch  crop  of  legumes,  as  the  cultivated  crop  will  tend 
to  free  the  land  of  weeds. 

The  depth  of  plowing  is  influenced  somewhat  by  the  kind  of 
root  demanded  on  the  market.  A  short,  well-rounded  potato 
sells  best  and  to  secure  this  sort,  rather  shallow  plowing  is 
necessary.  On  light  soils  a  depth  of  about  five  inches  seems 
to  give  the  desired  result,  while  on  heavier  soils  a  greater  depth 


Potatoes 


209 


may  be  plowed  without  affecting  the  length  of  the  potato.  In 
the  South  most  of  the  crop  is  planted  on  ridges.  Experience 
indicates  that  low  ridges,  not  over  four  or  five  inches  above 
the  water-furrow,  are  preferable  to  high  ones.  The  ridges  are 
generally  made  over  a  furrow  in  which  fertilizer  has  been  dis- 
tributed.     In    New    Jersey    level    cultivation   is    practiced. 

The  sweet  potato  slips  for 
planting  are  secured  by  plac- 
ing the  roots  in  a  layer  in 
hot-beds  or  especially  con- 
structed places  supplied  with 
bottom  heat.  Above  the 
layer  of  potatoes  is  placed 
a  layer  of  leaf -mold  or  sandy 
soil.  The  roots  are  bedded 
about  six  weeks  before  the 
time  of  setting  the  sHps  in 
the  field.  When  the  slips 
are  about  six  or  seven  inches 
long,  they  are  removed,  or 
drawn,  as  the  operation  is 
called,  and  transplanted  to 
the  field.  Fig.  91  shows  the 
rooted  slips  ready  for  set- 
ting in  the  field  and  Fig.  92,  Fig.  91. 
the  beds  with  slips  ready  to 
pull.  The  bed  must  be  watered  and  the  slips  drawn  carefully. 
The  potato  is  held  down  with  one  hand  and  the  slip  pulled  loose 
with  the  other,  the  potato  being  left  in  the  bed  so  that  more 
slips  will  develop  from  it.  Later  another  drawing  of  slips  is 
made.  To  prevent  the  roots  from  drying  out,  the  slips  should 
be  set  in  the  field  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  removed 
from  the  bed.  Some  growers  dip  them  in  a  thin  mixture  of 
clay,  fresh  cow  manure,  and  water.  This  forms  a  coating  over 
them  and  prevents  drying  out.     Many  growers  prefer  to  set 


Sweet   potato  slips  ready  for 
setting  in  the  field. 


210 


Effective  Farming 


the  slips  only  after  a  rain ;   others  do  not  wait  for  a  rain,  but 
water  the  plants  soon  after  they  are  set. 

Preparatory  to  transplanting  the  slips,  the  soil  is  smoothed 
and,  when  hand  transplanting  is  practiced,  the  rows  are  marked 
in  some  way  in  order  that  the  plants  will  stand  a  uniform  dis- 
tance apart.  One  person  then  drops  the  plants  one  at  a  time 
near  where  they  are  to  be  planted  and  another  follows  and 
places  them  in  the  soil.     A  dibble  or  small  trowel  is  often  used 


Fig.  92.  —  Sweet  potato  slips  in  hot-bed  ready  to  pull  for  transplanting. 


in  setting  the  plants,  but  many  growers,  to  avoid  bending  over  and 
straightening  up  as  each  plant  is  set,  make  use  of  long-handled 
tongs  and  a  lath  sharpened  to  a  flat  point.  In  setting  with  the 
tongs  and  sharpened  lath,  the  former  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the 
latter  in  the  other.  Each  slip  in  turn  is  picked  up  with  the  tongs, 
a  hole  is  made  in  the  ground  with  the  sharpened  stick,  the  slip 
placed  in  it,  and  the  soil  settled  about  the  plant  with  the  stick 
or  the  foot  of  the  one  doing  the  setting.  Transplanting  machines 
(Fig.  93)  are  now  in  common  use  in  regions  where  sweet  potatoes 
are  an  important  crop.  One  of  these  machines  sets  and  waters 
the  slips  as  fast  as  a  team  can  pull  it  across  the  field. 


Potatoes 


211 


When  grown  in  ridges  the  plants  are  usually  set  in  rows  three 
to  four  feet  apart  and  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  When 
level  culture  is  practiced,  the  rows  are  usually  thirty  inches 
apart  and  the  plants  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
In  some  truck-gardening  regions,  they  are  often  set  two  feet 
by  two  feet  each  way. 

When  not  enough  plants  are  furnished  by  slips,  vine  cuttings 
are  often  made  to  supply  the  deficiency.     The  vines  send  out 


Fig.  93.  —  Setting  sweet  potato  slips  with  a  transplanter. 


roots  from  the  nodes  when  they  touch  the  ground.  A  cut- 
ting is  made  from  the  tip  end  of  the  vine,  about  eight  or  ten 
inches  is  cut  off  and  carried  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  set, 
and  is  planted  immediately.  Roots  from  vine  cuttings  are  seldom 
troubled  with  black-rot  and  for  this  reason  the  potatoes  from 
plants  set  in  this  way  are  often  used  for  bedding  the  next  season. 

Cultivation  of  the  sweet  potato  field  during  the  growing  sea- 
son should  be  done  whenever  weeds  appear  or  a  crust  forms 
on  the  soil.     Shallow  cultivation  is  best. 

121.  Harvesting  and  storing.  —  The  time  of  harvesting 
depends  on  the  demands  of  the  market.     In  trucking  regions, 


212  Effective  Farming 

if  the  price  is  high  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  the  roots  are 
often  dug  before  the  vines  have  finished  growing.  The  bulk 
of  the  crop  is  not  dug,  however,  until  the  roots  are  mature. 
A  way  to  determine  this  is  to  examine  cut  surfaces  on  them. 
If  a  cut  in  a  root  becomes  discolored,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  root  is 
immature ;  a  cut  on  a  mature  root  heals  with  a  whitish  cover- 
ing. Most  of  the  crop  is  dug  about  the  time  of  the  first  fall 
frost,  which  is  usually  about  four  and  one-half  months  after 
planting. 

Before  the  roots  are  dug,  the  long  ends  of  the  vines  must 
be  removed.  A  plow  with  a  rolling  colter  is  often  used  to  cut 
them  off.  The  roots  are  then  turned  out  with  a  plow.  Some 
growers  use  special  plows  fitted  with  two  rolling  colters,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  beam.  With  one  of  these  the  row  can  be 
dug  without  first  plowing  to  cut  off  the  vines. 

One-fifth  of  the  sweet  potato  crop  of  the  Southern  States  — 
10,000,000  bushels  of  the  average  crop  of  50,000,000  —  is  lost 
annually  by  decay.  Careless  handUng  at  harvest  time  and 
improper  storage  cause  almost  the  entire  loss.  Two  things 
are  essential  in  the  storeroom  —  good  insulation  and  provision 
for  thorough  ventilation. 

Storage  houses  may  be  built  of  wood,  brick,  cement,  or  stone. 
Wooden  houses  are  preferable,  because  they  are  cheaper  and 
easier  to  keep  dry.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  moisture  from  col- 
lecting on  the  walls  of  a  cement,  stone,  or  brick  house.  The 
house  should  be  built  on  posts  or  piers,  so  as  to  allow  a  circu- 
lation of  air  under  it.  The  "  dugout,"  or  a  house  built  partly 
under  ground,  fails  because  it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep 
this  type  of  house  dry,  and  moisture  in  the  storage  house  will 
cause  the  potatoes  to  rot.  The  sills  should  be  placed  on  posts 
or  pillars  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground,  or  just  high 
enough  so  that  a  wagon  bed  will  be  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of 
the  house. 

On  many  farms  in  the  South  there  are  buildings,  such  as 
abandoned  tenant  houses,  that  could  be  converted  into  sweet 


Potatoes  213 

potato  storage  houses  at  very  little  expense.  These  houses 
will  usually  need  to  be  ceiled  on  the  inside.  For  this  purpose 
two-inch  by  four-inch  scantlings  should  be  set  against  the  wall 
and  covered  with  building  paper  and  then  a  layer  of  matched 
lumber.  The  windows  and  doors  should  be  made  tight  and 
ventilators  put  in  where  needed. 

122.  Pests  of  the  sweet  potato.  —  Few  insects  are  trouble- 
some to  sweet  potatoes. 

The  root-borer  is  sometimes  destructive  in  Texas  and  Louisi- 
ana. This  insect  bores  into  the  roots  and  injures  them.  The 
treatment  is  to  avoid  storing  or  bedding  infested  roots. 

Black  rot  is  the  most  serious  disease  of  the  crop.  Black 
spots  appear  on  affected  roots  which  soon  rot.  To  combat 
this  disease  care  should  be  taken  not  to  bed  infested  roots  and 
not  to  plant  slips  that  show  dark  spots  on  their  stems.  As 
stated  previously  roots  from  plants  propagated  by  vine  cut- 
tings are  likely  to  be  free  from  the  rot  and  are  the  best  kind  to 
use  for  bedding.  The  organism  of  the  disease  is  carried  over 
in  the  soil  and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  plant  some  crop  other 
than  sweet  potatoes  for  a  few  years  on  land  from  which  a 
badly  infested  crop  has  been  harvested.  Several  other  rots 
attack  sweet  potatoes,  but  the  remedies  are  the  same  as  for 
black-rot.     Proper  storage  aids  in  combating  the  rots. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  average  yield  and  possible  yield  of  white  potatoes 
in  the  United  States. 

2.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  white  potatoes  ? 

3.  What  size  seed  pieces  of  white  potatoes  seem  to  give  best  re- 
sults? 

4.  Why  is  rather  deep  planting  usually  advised  for  white  potatoes  ? 

5.  Give  the  life  history  of  the  Colorado  potato-beetle  and  state 
the  method  of  control  for  this  pest. 

6.  How  are  early  blight,  late  blight,  and  scab  combated  ? 

7.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  sweet  potatoes? 

8.  What  general  formula  is  employed  in  fertilizing  land  for  sweet 
potatoes  ? 


214  Effective  Farming 

9.    Why  should  sweet  potatoes  not  follow  sweet  potatoes  on  the 
same  piece  of  ground? 

10.  Describe  the  methods  of  propagating  sweet  potatoes. 

11.  How  can  you  tell  when  a  sweet  potato  root  is  mature? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Size  of  white  potato  seed  pieces.  —  Plan  and  carry  out  a  plot 
experiment  with  white  potatoes  using  seed  pieces  of  different  sizes. 
Also,  plan  one  comparing  whole  and  cut  seed  pieces. 

2.  Treatment  for  scab.  —  Treat  seed  potatoes  for  scab  before 
planting  them  as  directed  in  the  chapter.  Use  both  methods  and  com- 
pare results.  Always  plant  a  small  plot  with  potatoes  that  have  not 
been  treated  in  order  that  the  results  of  the  treatment  may  be  known. 
Treat  quantities  of  the  tubers  for  farmer  patrons  of  the  school. 

3.  Spraying  of  white  potatoes.  —  In  a  portion  of  white-potato  field 
spray  an  area  every  two  weeks  during  the  summer  with  bordeaux 
mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  and  leave  an  equal  area  unsprayed.  At 
harvest  time  compare  results.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  of  copper 
sulfate,  quick-lime,  and  water.  The  quantities  of  copper  sulfate  and 
lime  to  use  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  kind  of  plant  to  be  sprayed. 
For  white  potatoes  a  satisfactory  formula  to  use  is : 

Copper  sulfate • ....     5  lb. 

Quick-lime 6  lb. 

Water        50  gal. 

This  is  known  as  the  5-6-50  formula. 

To  make  fifty  gallons  of  the  bordeaux  mixture,  dissolve  the  copper 
sulfate  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water  and  in  a  separate  vessel  slake 
the  lime  and  dilute  it  to  twenty-five  gallons.  Pour  the  two  solutions 
simultaneously  through  a  brass  wire  strainer  into  the  spray  tank.  The 
arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  of  the  paste  form,  should  be  thinned 
with  water  and  poured  into  the  tank. 

4.  Fertilizer  experiment  with  white  potatoes.  —  In  rows  across 
a  field  to  be  planted  to  white  potatoes  try  different  quantities  of  ferti- 
lizer. For  example,  in  one  row  use  the  kind  of  fertilizer  being  used  on 
the  field  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  to  the  acre ;  on  a  second  row  use  it  at 
the  rate  of  one  thousand  pounds  to  the  acre  ;  on  a  third  row  use  it  at  the 
rate  of  five  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre ;  leave  a  row  without  any 
fertilizer  as  a  check.  At  harvest  time  compare  the  yields  of  the  differ- 
ent rows. 


Potatoes  215 

5.  Propagation  of  sweet  potatoes.  —  If  possible  to  do  so  arrange  a 
hot-bed  and  sprout  sweet  potatoes  as  directed  in  the  chapter.  If  this 
work  cannot  be  done  at  the  school-house  the  pupils  should,  if  living  in  a 
region  where  sweet  potatoes  are  an  important  crop,  take  part  in  the 
work  on  some  farm  in  the  neighborhood. 

Propagate  a  few  sweet  potato  plants  by  meams  of  vine  cuttings  as 
directed  in  the  chapter. 

6.  Comparison  of  propagation  of  white  and  of  sweet  potatoes.  — 
Place  both  tubers  of  white  potatoes  and  roots  of  sweet  potatoes  in  moist 
sphagnum  moss  and  keep  in  a  warm,  dark  place  where  they  will  sprout, 
and  study  the  origin  of  the  sprouts  of  both. 


REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  519- 

528 ;   613-623.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Grubb,  Eugene  H.,  and  Guilford,    W.  S.,    The    Potato.     Doubleday, 

Page  and  Co. 
Pink,  J.,  Potatoes  :    How  to  Grow  and  Show  Them.     D.  Van  Nostrand 

Co. 
Gilbert,  Arthur  W.,  The  Potato.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  533,  Good  Seed  Potatoes  and  How  to  Produce  Them. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  35,  Potato  Culture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  91,  Potato  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  847,  Potato  Storage  and  Storage  Houses. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  544,  Potato-tuber  Diseases. 
F^armers'  Bulletin  324,  Sweet  Potatoes. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  714,  Sweet  Potato  Diseases. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  548,  Storing  and  Marketing  Sweet  Potatoes. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SUGAR-CANE,   COTTON,   AND   TOBACCO 

Sugar-cane 

Distribution  and  characteristics. 

Uses. 

Soils  and  fertilizers. 

Cultural  methods. 

Harvesting. 

Pests  of  sugar-cane. 

Cane-borer,  root  disease,  red-cane. 

Cotton 
The  cotton  plant. 
Types  of  cotton. 
Uses  of  cotton. 
Soils  and  fertilizers. 
Rotations  with  cotton. 
Cultural  methods. 

Plowing. 

Ridging  the  land. 

Date  of  planting. 

Planting  the  seed.' 

Cultivating  the  field. 
Harvesting  the  crop. 
Pests  of  cotton. 

Boll-weevil,  boll-worm,  cotton-wilt,  root-rot. 

Tobacco 
Tobacco-growing  districts. 
Classes  of  tobacco. 

Methods  of  securing  tobacco  seedlings. 
Cultural  methods. 
Harvesting  and  curing. 

The  three  crops  considered  in  this  chapter  are  essentially 
southern,  although  tobacco  is  grown  in  quantity  as  far  north 
as  Wisconsin   and   Connecticut.     They  are   "'  money  crops," 

216 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  217 

the  product  being  staple  and  having  a  definite  quotation  in  the 
market.  The  cane  suppUes  much  of  the  sugar  (the  remainder 
coming  from  sugar-beets)  and  its  culture  is  a  large  industry  in 
the  far  South.  It  is  a  tall,  large-leaved  grass,  with  a  juice  in  the 
stalks  that,  when  squeezed  out  and  boiled  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency makes  the  sugar  and  molasses  of  commerce. 

Cotton  is  the  greatest  crop  of  the  South.  Fields  of  this 
shrub-like  plant  are  everywhere  in  the  regions  warm  enough 
to  grow  the  plants,  which  is  from  southern  Virginia  south- 
ward. Farm  rents  are  paid  in  bales  of  cotton  rather  than  in 
money  and  in  every  town  in  the  cotton-belt  dealers  are  on 
hand  at  all  times  to  buy  the  product.  As  will  be  learned,  the 
cotton  fiber  makes  most  of  the  thread  and  light  cloth  used  by 
mankind.  The  seeds,  also,  are  of  much  importance.  The  oil 
and  the  meal  derived  from  the  seeds  are  staple  articles  of  com- 
merce. The  oil  made  up  to  the  consistency  of  lard  is  fast 
taking  the  place  of  that  commodity.  It  is  asserted  that  South 
Carolina  produces  more  shortening  than  the  hog-producing 
state  of  Iowa. 

Tobacco  is  a  native  of  America.  In  some  regions  its  value 
to  the  farmer  is  very  large.  Companies  capitalized  at  millions 
of  dollars  control  the  output  and  the  trade  in  the  products  is 
extremely  large. 

These  three  crops  have  little  in  common  so  far  as  culture  and 
handling  are  concerned,  but  as  they  are  distinctive  parts  of 
southern  agriculture  they  may  be  considered  together. 

SUGAR-CANE 

123.  Distribution  and  characteristics.  —  Sugar-cane  be- 
longs to  the  grass  family.  It  has  a  tall,  jointed  stem  with 
leaves  at  each  node  and  several  stalks  grow  in  a  cluster  from 
the  central  stalk,  as  shown  in  Fig.  94.  Sugar  and  sirup  are 
made  from  the  juice  of  the  stem.  The  plant  is  a  perennial 
and  in  tropical  countries  crops  can  be  cut  for  several  years 
before  the  field  needs  to  be  replanted.     However,  in  Louisiana 


218 


Effective  Farming 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  219 

and  Texas,  where  most  of  the  crop  of  the  United  States  is 
grown,  only  two  or  three  crops  are  cut  before  the  field  becomes 
unprofitable.  In  sections  farther  north  often  only  one  crop 
can  be  secured. 

Cuba,  Java,  .Hawaii,  United  States,  and  Porto  Rico  are  the 
chief  countries  that  produce  sugar-cane. 

124.  Uses.  —  Sugar  is  the  chief  product  from  cane.  It 
can  be  made  only  from  fully  ripened  stalks,  thus  limiting  the 
production  to  regions  where  early  frosts  do  not  occur.  Sirup 
can  be  made  from  rather  immature  cane  and  in  sections  where 
early  frosts  do  occur  sirup  is  manufactured.  This  is  not  the 
same  as  molasses,  but  is  made  by  boiling  the  juice  of  the  im- 
mature cane,  while  molasses  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  sugar. 

In  addition  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  molasses,  and  sirup, 
cane  has  a  few  other  uses.  The  tops  and  green  leaves  are  fed 
to  live-stock ;  the  crushed  stalks  are  used  for  silage  and  fuel, 
and  the  making  of  paper. 

125.  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  One  of  the  first  requirements 
for  sugar-cane  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  in  the  soil  through- 
out the  whole  growing  season.  The  plant  with  its  number  of 
broad  leaves  presents  a  large  area  of  leaf  surface  from  which 
much  moisture  is  sent  into  the  air  by  transpiration. 

Soils  for  cane  should  be  fertile  and  rich  in  humus.  In  hilly 
regions,  well  drained  alluvial  bottom  lands  are  very  satisfac- 
tory. 

Commercial  fertilizer  is  used  profitably  in  growing  cane. 
Abundant  fertilizer  is  needed  in  Louisiana,  because  the  tops  and 
leaves  of  the  cane  are  burned  each  year.  If  this  material  were 
plowed  under,  it  would  return  plant-food  and  humus  to  the 
soil ;  nevertheless  the  burning  is  considered  the  better  prac- 
tice, because  the  fire  destroys  many  cane-borers,  a  serious  pest 
of  the  crop  and,  in  addition,  gets  rid  of  much  undecayed  organic 
matter  that  would  hamper  the  cultivation  of  the  ground. 
Also  the  soil  with  the  litter  removed  will  dry  out  rapidly  in 


220  Effective  Farming 

the  spring,  which  is  an  especial  advantage.  Nitrogen  is  needed 
on  most  soils  that  are  planted  to  cane.  One  way  to  secure  this 
food  is  to  use  cowpeas  or  other  legumes  as  green-manure  every 
third  or  fourth  year.  Another  way  is  to  use  commercial  fertilizer 
rich  in  nitrogen.  In  Louisiana  350  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
an  acre  or  its  equivalent  in  plant-food  from  dried  blood,  tank- 
age, or  cottonseed  meal,  has  been  used  with  good  results. 
Phosphoric  acid  is  also  needed  on  most  of  the  soils.  It  is  gen- 
erally supplied  in  the  form  of  acid-phosphate  at  the  rate  of 
about  250  pounds  an  acre.  Potash  is  not  usually  needed  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas. 

The  Government  recommends,  as  a  result  of  experiments, 
the  following  fertilizers  for  the  sandy  pine  lands  as  found  in 
the  southern  part  of  Georgia : 

When  the  cane  was  not  preceded  by  a  soil-improving  crop : 

300  pounds,  nitrate  of  soda 
100  pounds,  cottonseed  meal 
600  pounds,  high-grade  acid-phosphate 
100  pounds,  sulfate  or  murate  of  potash 
1100  pounds,  total  to  the  acre. 

When  the  cane  was  preceded  by  a  crop  of  velvet  beans  that 
were  plowed  under : 

100  pounds,  nitrate  of  soda 
1100  pounds,  high-grade  acid-phosphate 

100  pounds,  murate  of  potash 
1300  poimds,  total  to  the  acre. 

In  Louisiana  and  Texas  and  also  in  the  Southeast,  part  of 
the  commercial  fertilizer  is  usually  applied  before  the  planting 
and  a  part  after  the  plants  start  growth. 

126.  Cultural  methods.  —  Cane  in  Louisiana  is  planted  on 
top  of  beds  five  to  seven  feet  wide.  These  beds  are  necessary 
to  insure  drainage.  The  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  and  the 
beds  formed  about  a  month  later.  In  the  growing  season  they 
are  kept  high  and  the  furrows  between  them  are  kept  open. 

Planting  starts  early  in  the  fall  and  continues  until  Novem- 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  221 

ber,  when  men  are  needed  to  harvest  the  cane  from  other 
fields.  Any  area  not  planted  in  the  fall  is  planted  in  February 
or  March.  The  cane  used  for  the  later  planting  must  have 
been  protected  during  the  winter  by  a  covering  of  soil.  A 
furrow  shallower  than  the  water-furrow  is  made  in  the  top  of 
each  bed  with  a  double  moldboard  plow.  In  this  furrow  is 
placed  a  double  row  of  the  stripped  cane  stalks,  which  are  later 
covered  with  soil  by  means  of  a  disc  cultivator.  Cane  planted 
in  the  fall  is  covered  rather  deeply  as  a  means  of  protection 
from  freezing  and  in  the  spring  the  top  part  of  the  bed  is  re- 
moved with  a  hoe. 

•  The  methods  of  planting  in  the  pine-belt  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi differ  somewhat  from  those  in  Louisiana.  Beds  five  to 
six  feet  wide  are  made  and  commercial  fertilizer  placed  in  the 
water-furrow.  The  cane  is  later  planted  in  this  furrow,  but 
before  this  is  done  a  plow  is  run  through  the  furrow  to  mix 
the  fertilizer  with  the  soil  to  prevent  the  eyes  of  the  seed-cane 
from  being  injured  by  the  fertilizer.  A  single  row  of  cane  is 
planted  in  the  furrow  and  a  bed  formed  above  it.  The  canes 
are  covered  deep  and  later  a  part  of  the  soil  is  removed.  Ex- 
cept in  parts  of  Florida,  where  fall-planting  is  sometimes  prac- 
ticed, most  of  the  planting  east  of  the  Mississippi  is  done  early 
in  March. 

Frequent  cultivations  and  an  occasional  hoeing  during  the 
growing  season  up  to  the  time  the  cane  shades  the  land  enough 
to  keep  down  the  weeds  are  necessary  to  insure  a  good  growth. 
In  Louisiana  the  water-furrow  must  be  kept  open  and  the  bed 
kept  at  a  good  height  to  provide  drainage.  In  the  pine  lands 
of  the  Southeast  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  beds  so  high. 

127.  Harvesting.  —  In  the  harvesting  of  cane  to  be  used 
for  sugar  or  sirup,  the  leaves  must  be  stripped  from  the  stalk 
and  the  top  removed.  Stripping  and  topping  are  usually  done 
when  the  plants  are  standing  in  the  field,  but  in  the  more 
northern  regions,  where  sirup  is  the  product,  the  expectation 
of  an  early  frost  often  causes  the  planters  to  have  the  stalks 


222  Effective  Farming 

cut  before  they  are  stripped  and  topped.  They  are  piled  and 
stripped,  and  topped  later.  After  the  leaves  and  tops  are 
stripped,  the  canes  are  hauled  to  the  mills  and  their  juice  made 
into  sugar  or  sirup. 

128.  Pests  of  sugar-cane.  —  Only  a  few  insects  and  diseases 
attack  the  sugar-cane. 

Cane-borer.  —  The  chief  insect  enemy  of  sugar-cane  in  Louis- 
iana is  the  cane-borer.  This  borer  is  the  larva  of  a  moth  and 
injures  the  cane  by  boring  into  it.  The  remedy  is  to  burn  the 
tops  and  the  leaves  of  the  cane  as  previously  described. 

Root  disease  is  sometimes  troublesome  in  cane.  It  is  caused 
by  a  fungus  that  lives  over  from  year  to  year  in  the  soil  or  in 
diseased  plants.  Burning  the  cane  litter  and  planting  canes 
free  from  the  disease  are  preventive  measures. 

Red-cane.  —  A  discoloration  of  the  interior  of  the  stem  occurs 
if  cuts  and  bruises  are  made  on  the  outside.  If  injured  canes 
are  planted,  the  disease  may  be  harmful. 

COTTON 

129.  The  cotton  plant.  —  The  fibers  of  cotton  make  a  large 
part  of  the  thread  and  cloth  used  by  mankind  and,  in  addition, 
the  seeds  are  valuable  in  many  ways.  Cotton  is  grown  m 
warm  climates.  The  southern  part  of  the  United  States  pro- 
duces about  three-fourths  of  the  world's  cotton  crop.  It  is 
also  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  southern  California.  India 
and  Egypt  follow  the  United  States  with  considerably  smaller 
productions. 

The  plants  vary  in  height  from  low-growing  shrubs  to  trees 
twenty  feet  high.  In  the  South  the  commercial  variety  is  the 
product  of  plants  averaging  from  two  to  six  feet  high.  The 
tree  form  grows  only  in  tropical  countries  and  is  not  commer- 
cially important.  In  such  regions  the  plant  is  a  perennial, 
but  in  this  country  it  is  grown  as  an  annual.  The  plant  has 
an  erect  stem  with  several  branches  (Fig.  95).  The  root- 
system  consists  of  a  tap-root  with  several  branching  roots 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco 


223 


growing  from  it  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  ground. 
Cotton  is  really  a  shallow  feeder.  The  plant  is  somewhat 
cone-shaped,  the  lower  branches  being  the  longest  and  the 
length  decreasing  toward  the  top.     Two  kinds  of  branches, 


Fig.  95.  —  Cotton  plant. 

known  as  vegetative  and  fruiting,  are  found  on  the  plants. 
The  vegetative  branches  have  many  leaves  and  do  not  usually 
produce  many  bolls.  The  fruiting  branches  have  few  leaves 
and  produce  most  of  the  bolls. 


224  Effective  Farming 

The  stems  are  covered  with  a  fairly  tough  bark  and  the  in- 
side is  brittle ;  consequently  after  the  crop  has  been  harvested, 
the  old  plants  can  be  broken  down  readily.  The  leaves  are 
arranged  alternately  and  are  usually  three-lobed,  although  they 
vary  in  shape  in  different  varieties  and  often  on  the  same  plant. 

The  flowers  are  large  and  are  attached  to  the  stems  by  short 
branches.  In  the  upland  varieties,  the  blossom  is  white  or 
pale  cream  on  the  first  morning  and  changes  to  a  pink  or  red 
on  the  second  day.  The  petals  fall  on  the  third  or  fourth  day. 
In  the  sea-island  varieties,  the  blossom  the  first  morning  is 
yellow  with  a  purple-red  spot  at  the  base  of  each  petal.  The 
flowers  of  cotton  have  five  large  petals  and  five  inconspicuous 
sepals.  The  base  of  the  flower  is  surrounded  by  three  to  five 
fringed  bracts.  The  unopened  buds  inclosed  by  the  bracts 
make  up  the  so-called  *'  square  "  of  cotton.  After  the  petals 
fall  there  remains  an  enlarged  base  of  the  pistil  surrounded 
by  the  bracts.  The  enlarged  pistil  is  the  seed-pod.  As  this 
develops  the  bracts  fold  backward  and  the  divisions,  or  locks, 
separate,  exposing  the  white,  fluffy  mass  of  fiber  and  seeds. 
The  pistil  is  divided  into  three  to  six  parts  and  the  number  is 
the  same  as  that  of  locks  of  seed  cotton  that  develop  in  the  boll. 

The  single  fibers  of  cotton  are  very  small.  Each  is  an  elon- 
gated, twisted  tube.  The  twists  in  a  fiber  are  what  cause 
threads  to  hold  together  when  the  cotton  is  spun  into  yarn. 
Because  it  will  make  a  stronger  yarn,  cotton  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  twists  in  the  fiber  is  more  valuable  than  that  with  a 
comparatively  few  twists.  Maturity  of  fiber  is  of  importance, 
as  immature  fibers  have  but  a  few  twists  and  thus  make  weak 
threads.  For  this  reason  cotton  should  not  be  picked  until 
the  bolls  are  well  opened  and  mature.  The  length  of  the  fiber 
also  determines  its  value,  a  long  fiber  being  more  valuable 
than  a  short  one. 

130.  Types  of  cotton.  —  The  most  important  type  of  cotton 
grown  in  the  United  States  is  the  American  upland,  which  is 
of  two  classes,  the  short-staple  and  the  long-staple.     In  the 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  225 

short-staple,  the  different  fibers  vary  in  length  from  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  to  one  and  one-eighth  inches  and  in  the 
long  staple  from  one  and  one-quarter  inches  to  one  and  five- 
eighths  inches.  Long-staple  cotton  is  of  much  more  value 
than  short-staple,  but  usually  the  acre  yield  is  less.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  upland  cotton  grown  in  the  United  States  is 
short-staple,  but  of  recent  years  improvement  has  been  made 
in  varieties  by  careful  seed  selection  and  larger  acreages  of 
long-staple  are  being  grown. 

The  other  type  is  sea-island  cotton.  The  lint  is  much  longer 
than  that  of  long-stapled  upland,  the  usual  length  being  from 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches.  The  yarn  from  these  fibers 
is  used  in  making  the  finest  fabrics.  The  price  is  much  higher 
than  for  upland  cotton,  but  the  acre  yield  is  less  and  it  is  more 
difficult  to  pick  and  gin.  This  type  can  be  grown  only  where 
the  climate  is  even  and  moist  and  where  there  is  no  danger 
from  frost.  The  areas  in  the  United  States  where  it  is  pro- 
duced are  along  the  coast  and  on  nearby  islands  of  South  Car- 
olina, Georgia,  and  Florida. 

131.  Uses  of  cotton.  —  The  principal  use  of  cotton  is  for 
making  thread  and  cloth.  The  seeds  are,  however,  of  consid- 
erable value.  They  are  sometimes  used  as  fertilizer  by  the 
southern  planters,  but  this  practice  is  much  less  common  than 
formerly.  The  seeds  now  are  usually  sold  to  the  oil  mills, 
where  the  oil  they  contain  is  extracted  and  refined.  Cotton- 
seed oil  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil  and  for  making 
soap  and  lard  substitute.  The  portion  of  the  seed  that  is  left 
is  valuable  as  a  dairy  feed.  It  is  high  in  protein  and  is  one  of 
the  chief  products  used  by  dairymen  to  increase  the  protein- 
content  of  the  rations  fed  to  the  cattle.  It  is  also  valuable  as 
fertilizer.  Before  extracting  the  oil,  the  hulls  are  removed. 
These  are  used  by  some  southern  planters  as  dairy  feed.  They 
contain,  however,  chiefly  cellulose  and  thus  their  chief  value  is 
to  furnish  bulk  to  the  ration.  They  are  sometimes  used  as  a 
fertilizer,  but  for  this  purpose  are  of  no  considerable  value. 
Q 


226  Effective  Farming 

132,  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  Cotton  will  grow  on  almost 
any  soil  from  a  light  sand  to  a  heavy  clay.  Light  soils  are  not 
especially  good  for  this  crop,  because  of  injury  from  cotton 
rust  that  is  likely  to  occur.  Nevertheless,  they  are  often 
planted  and  yield  good  crops.  Loamy  soils  or  clays  are  better. 
The  soil  must  not  be  too  rich  for  there  is  likely  to  be  an  exces- 
sive stalk  development  at  the  expense  of  the  bolls. 

The  South  has  found  the  use  of  fertihzer  for  cotton  to  be 
profitable.  The  experiment  stations  have  done  much  toward 
determining  the  best  fertilizer  for  cotton  lands  of  their  states 
and  the  results  of  the  determinations  are  recorded  in  bulletins 
that  are  sent  free  to  the  residents  of  the  state  on  application. 
Farmers  should  take  advantage  of  these  publications. 

C.  B.  Williams,  agronomist,  North  Carolina  Experiment 
Station  has  made  an  extensive  study  of  the  fertihzer  require- 
ment for  cotton-growing  on  both  the  Coastal  Plain  and  the 
Piedmont  Plateau  soils  of  the  South  and  makes  the  following 
recommendations : 

For  the  Coastal  Plain  soils,  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred 
pounds  or  more  to  the  acre  of  one  of  the  following  mixtures 
should  be  used. 

No.  1.  Pounds 

Acid-phosphate,  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid 300 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.17  per  cent  nitrogen,  2.8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.8  per  cent  potash 1400 

Kainit,  12  per  cent  potash 300 

2000 

This  mixture  will  contain:  Available  phosphoric  acid,  4.4  per 
cent ;  potash,  3.1  per  cent ;  nitrogen,  4.3  per  cent  (equal  to  ammonia, 
5.2  per  cent). 

No.  2.  Pounds 

Acid-phosphate,  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid 460 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.17  per  cent  nitrogen,  2.8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.8  per  cent  potash 770 

Nitrate  of  soda,  15  per  cent  nitrogen 320 

Kainit,  12  per  cent  potash 450 

2000 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  227 

In  this  formula  one-half  of  the  nitrogen  is  supplied  by  nitrate  of 
soda,  and  the  other  one-half  hy  cottonseed  meal.  This  mixture 
will  contain :  available  phosphoric  acid,  4.8  per  cent ;  potash,  3.4  per 
cent ;   nitrogen,  4.8  per  cent  (equal  to  ammonia,  5.8  per  cent). 

No.  3.  •  Pounds 

Acid-phosphate,  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid 330 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.17  per  cent  nitrogen,  2.8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.8  per  cent  potash 1590 

Muriate  of  potash,  50  per  cent  potash 80 

2000 

This  mixture  will  contain :  available  phosphoric  acid,  4.9  per  cent ; 
potash,  3.4  per  cent ;  nitrogen,  4.9  per  cent  (equal  to  ammonia,  6  per 
cent). 

For  the  Piedmont  Plateau  soils,  the  same  quantity  of  one 
of  the  mixtures  listed  below  should  be  used. 

No.  1.  Pounds 

Acid-phosphate,  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid 1125 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.17  per  cent  nitrogen,  2.8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.8  per  cent  potash    640 

Kainit,  12  per  cent  potash 235 

2000 

This  mixture  will  contain :  available  phosphoric  acid,  9.9  per  cent ; 
potash,  2  per  cent ;    nitrogen,  2  per  cent   (equal  to  ammonia,  2.4  per 

cent). 

No.  2.  Pounds 

Acid-phosphate,  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid 1235 

Cottonseed  meal,  6.17  per  cent  nitrogen,  2.8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.8  per  cent  potash 700 

Muriate  of  potash,  50  per  cent  potash 65 

2000 

This  mixture  will  contain  :  available  phosphoric  acid,  10.9  per  cent ; 
potash,  2.3  per  cent ;  nitrogen,  2.2  per  cent  (equal  to  ammonia,  2.7 
per  cent). 

133.  Rotations  with  cotton.  —  Leguminous  crops  grown 
either  as  green-manure  or  as  forage  crops  in  rotation  with 
cotton  are  especially  useful  in  keeping  up  the  plant-food  and 


228  Effective  Farming 

humus  supply  of  the  soils  of  the  South.  Where  cotton  is 
grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops  and  legumes  are  made 
a  part  of  the  rotation,  a  very  good  soil  condition  is  ob- 
tained. C.  B.  Williams  advises  the  following  rotations  for 
North  Carolina. 

For  the  Coastal  Plain : 

First  year.  —  Cotton. 

Second  year.  —  Rye  or  oats,  followed  by  cowpeas  or  soybeans  to  be 

plowed  into  the  soil. 
Third  year.  —  Corn,  with  cowpeas  ;    or 
First  year.  —  Cotton,  with  crimson  clover  sown  broadcast  after  the 

first  picking. 
Second  year.  —  Corn,  with  cowpeas. 
Third  year.  —  Small  grain  followed  by  cowpeas  or  soybeans. 

For  the  Piedmont  Plateau : 

First  year.  —  Cotton,  with  rye  sown  after  the  first  picking. 

Second  year.  —  Corn,  with  cowpeas. 

Third  year.  —  Wheat  sown  the  previous  fall,  and  red  clover  sown  on  the 

wheat  during  the  early  spring. 
Fourth  year.  —  Red  clover. 

134.  Cultural  methods.  —  Cotton  is  very  often  planted  on 
land  that  has  been  in  cotton  the  previous  year.  The  first 
step  in  preparing  for  another  crop  is  to  break  down  the  old 
stalks  and  chop  them  into  pieces  that  can  be  turned  under  by 
means  of  a  plow.  An  implement  known  as  a  stalk-cutter  is 
useful  for  this  purpose.  When  a  stalk-cutter  is  not  available, 
the  stalks  are  generally  beaten  down  with  a  stick.  Where 
the  cotton  boll-weevil  is  prevalent,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
burn  the  old  stalks.  This  is  done  in  the  early  fall  before  the 
weevils  hibernate  for  the  winter.  The  stalks  should  be  turned 
under  when  possible,  as  they  add  humus  to  the  soil. 

Plowing.  —  Most  of  the  fields  for  cotton  are  plowed  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March.  Some  growers  plow  as  early  as  November 
or  December;  others  just  previous  to  planting,  which  date 
varies  according  to  the  locality.     Late  plowing  is  not  advised. 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  229 

Early  plowing  on  clay  soils  is  an  advantage,  as  the  freezing  in 
winter  aids  in  pulverizing  the  soil.  If  the  land  becomes  too 
compact  before  planting  time,  it  should  be  plowed  again  or 
disked.  Sandy  land  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  plowed  too  early 
on  account  of  the  tendency  of  plant-food  to  leach  away.  All 
fall-plowed  land  should  have  a  cover-crop  to  prevent  the  loss 
of  fertility  by  leaching  and  washing.  This  land  should  be 
plowed  again  in  the  early  spring ;  this  gives  the  green  plants 
time  to  decay  somewhat  before  the  cotton  is  planted.  Deep 
plowing  is  advised  as  it  gives  more  room  for  the  roots.  If, 
however,  the  land  has  always  been  plowed  shallow,  the  depth 
should  be  increased  gradually,  because  too  much  subsoil  thrown 
up  by  the  plow  is  a  disadvantage. 

Ridging  the  land.  —  Fields  to  be  planted  to  cotton  are  usually 
ridged,  four  or  more  furrow  slices  made  with  a  one-horse  plow 
being  thrown  together  to  form  a  bed  three  or  four  feet  wide 
and  several  inches  higher  than  the  furrow  between  them. 
If  fertilizer  is  to  be  used,  a  furrow  is  plowed  in  the  middle  of 
the  space  where  the  bed  will  be  made  and  the  fertilizer  placed 
in  it.  Later  the  ridge  is  made  and  the  seed  planted  in  a  row 
above  the  fertilizer. 

Date  of  planting.  —  The  time  of  planting  is  controlled  largely 
by  the  usual  date  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  the  region.  As 
this  date  varies  in  different  sections,  the  time  of  planting 
cotton  also  varies.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  cotton-belt, 
planting  is  often  not  done  until  May.  In  the  southern  part 
it  is  generally  begun  in  March. 

Planting  the  seed.  —  Most  of  the  cotton  is  planted  with  a 
one-horse  planter  (Fig.  208).  The  usual  depth  of  planting  is 
from  one  to  three  inches ;  on  cloddy,  dry  soils  the  depth  is 
deeper  than  in  well  prepared  moist  soils.  From  a  bushel  to 
a  bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  an  acre  is  usually  sown.  If  the 
seeds  all  sprout,  this  provides  too  many  plants,  but  the  sur- 
plus are  later  hoed,  or  ''  chopped,"  out.  The  plants  are  left 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  apart  in  the  row  after  thinning. 


230  Effective  Farming 

Cultivating  the  field.  —  When  the  plants  are  a  few  inches 
high,  they  should  be  cultivated  with  a  harrow  or  weeder. 
From  four  to  six  cultivations  and  two  or  more  hoeings  should 
be  given  a  field  during  the  growing  season.  A  good  rule  to 
follow  is  to  cultivate  after  each  rain  before  a  crust  has  formed. 
Shallow  cultivation,  especially  after  the  plants  have  attained 
some  size,  is  advised,  because  the  branching  roots  of  the  cot- 
ton plant  do  not  go  deep  into  the  soil. 

135.  Harvesting  the  crop.  —  Most  cotton  is  picked  by  hand. 
Several  mechanical  pickers  are  on  the  market,  but  they  are 
not  entirely  satisfactory.  The  picking  is  one  of  the  most  ex- 
pensive operations  in  cotton  culture.  Fig.  96  shows  a  field 
of  cotton  ready  to  be  picked.  Following  the  picking  the  cot- 
ton is  ginned  —  that  is,  the  seeds  are  removed.  The  cotton- 
gin  separates  the  seed  from  the  fiber,  or  lint,  by  means  of  saw- 
like wheels.  The  lint  after  the  removal  of  the  seeds  is  packed 
by  hydraulic  pressure  into  bales  of  about  five  hundred  pounds 
in  weight.     It  is  then  ready  for  sale. 

136.  Pests  of  cotton.  —  The  boll-weevil  and  the  boll-worm 
are  the  two  most  troublesome  insect  pests  of  cotton,  and  cotton- 
wilt  and  root-rot  are  the  two  most  troublesome  diseases.  Only 
brief  mention  can  be  made  here  of  these  pests.  For  a  full  dis- 
cussion see  the  publications  on  the  subject  sent  out  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  experiment 
stations  of  the  Southern  States. 

Boll-weevil.  —  The  adult  weevil  is  a  grayish  insect  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  long  with  a  snout  about  half  as  long  as  its 
body.  The  female  lays  its  eggs  in  the  bracts  and  the  immature 
bolls.  The  larvae  eat  into  the  boll  and  destroy  its  center. 
The  methods  of  combating  the  pests  are  preventive.  The 
weevils  are  most  numerous  late  in  the  season.  For  this  rea- 
son an  early  crop  is  desired.  To  attain  this  end,  warm,  early 
soils  are  selected  as  the  areas  to  be  planted  to  cotton,  early 
varieties  are  chosen  and  planted  as  soon  as  the  weather  permits, 
and  the  ground  is  well  fertilized  and  cultivated  frequently. 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco 


231 


232  Effective  Farming 

In  the  spring  fallen  squares  which  contain  larvae  are  picked 
up  and  burned.  In  the  fall  the  stalks  of  the  cotton  are  burned 
or  plowed  under  to  kill  as  many  weevils  as  possible  before  they 
hibernate. 

Boll-worm.  —  The  same  insect  as  the  corn  ear- worm  pre- 
viously described  when  found  on  cotton  is  known  as  the  boll- 
worm.  The  females  lay  eggs  on  all  parts  of  the  cotton  plant, 
but  more  especially  on  the  leaves.  The  larvae  that  hatch 
eat  at  first  into  the  tender  buds  and  the  surface  tissue  of  the 
leaves.  At  this  stage  they  can  be  poisoned,  but  this  practice 
has  not  been  found  very  practicable.  Preventive  measures 
are  better.  As  the  worms  become  older,  they  cut  into  the  boll 
and  destroy  its  contents.  When  they  become  full  size,  they 
drop  to  the  ground  and  usually  burrow  to  a  depth  of  two  or 
three  inches,  where  they  remain  during  the  pupal  stage.  From 
the  pupa  the  moth  emerges. 

The  preventive  measure  usually  followed  is  to  plant  trap 
crops  of  corn,  one  about  thfe  first  of  June  and  the  other  two 
weeks  later.  This  will  bring  the  corn  into  the  roasting  ear 
stage  during  the  first  weeks  of  August.  The  moths  prefer 
corn  in  the  roasting  ear  stage  to  cotton ;  consequently  they 
will  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  corn  rather  than  on  the  cotton 
and  thus  the  latter  will  not  suffer  much  from  the  ravages  of 
the  larvae.  The  trap  crops  of  corn  are  often  planted  in  oat 
fields  near  the  cotton  or  two  or  three  rows  of  corn  are  planted 
in  the  cotton  fields,  alternating  with  thirty  or  forty  rows  of 
cotton. 

Another  preventive  measure  is  late  fall  or  early  winter 
plowing.  This  destroys  the  burrows  of  the  insects  and  upturns 
many  of  the  pupa  to  the  cold  weather  of  winter. 

Cotton-wilt.  —  This  is  a  very  troublesome  disease,  especially 
on  some  soils.  It  occurs  any  time  after  the  plants  are  about 
six  inches  high.  The  plants  suddenly  wilt  and  usually  die 
in  a  few  days.  To  plant  no  cotton  on  the  ground  for  three 
years  and  to  use  wilt-resistant  varieties  will  sometimes  prove 


Sugar-caney  Cotton^  and  Tobacco  233 

successful  in  combating  the  disease.  Planting  a  grain  crop 
x)n  the  ground  in  the  fall  and  following  the  next  year  with  a 
crop  of  cowpeas  of  the  iron  variety  is  a  method  used  by  some 
farmers  to  prevent  the  disease. 

Root-rot.  —  The  plants  affected  with  rot  wilt  suddenly  and 
later  die.  Deep  fall  plowing  and  the  growing  of  some  other  crop 
on  the  land  for  a  few  years  are  of  use  in  fighting  the  disease. 
In  choosing  a  crop  in  place  of  the  cotton,  the  planters  must 
avoid  sweet  potatoes  and  alfalfa,  which  are  also  attacked  by 
root-rot. 

TOBACCO 

137.  Tobacco-growing  districts.  —  The  tobacco  plant  may 
be  grown  successfully  in  all  latitudes  of  the  United  States  and 
on  a  great  variety  of  soils.  But  the  value  of  the  crop  is  influ- 
enced so  much  by  the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  under  which 
it  is  grown  that  the  industry  has  become  specialized  in  certain 
districts  and  it  is  there  that  the  trade  seeks  the  product.  Each 
special  district  produces  a  certain  type  of  tobacco  and  the 
methods  of  growing  and  handling  the  crop  vary  according  to 
the  type  of  leaf  that  it  is  desired  to  produce.  General  cultural 
methods  are,  however,  somewhat  similar. 

138.  Classes  of  tobacco.  —  Three  general  classes  of  tobacco 
are  grown,  (1)  cigar  tobaccos,  (2)  export  tobaccos,  and  (3) 
manufacturing  tobaccos.  Cigar  tobaccos  are  those  to  be 
made  into  cigars,  export  tobaccos  are  those  to  be  sent  abroad, 
and  manufacturing  tobaccos  are  those  to  be  used  in  the  making 
of  products  other  than  cigars.  Each  of  the  general  classes  may 
be  subdivided  into  types.  For  example,  cigar  tobaccos  may 
be  wrapper  leaf,  binder  leaf,  or  filler  leaf.  In  export  and  manu- 
facturing tobaccos  are  such  types  as  flue-cured,  Virginias  un- 
cured,  and  white  burley.  Each  of  the  different  types  is  pro- 
duced on  a  special  kind  of  soil  and  according  to  different  methods 
of  curing  and  handling.  Cigar  tobaccos  are  grown  chiefly 
in  certain  sections  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Florida,  Georgia,  and  Texas. 


234  Effective  Farming  ^' 

Export  and  manufacturing  tobaccos  are  grown  chiefly  in  sec- 
tions in  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Virginia,  Indiana,  South 
CaroUna,  North  Carolina,  and  Louisiana. 

139.  Methods  of  securing  tobacco  seedlings.  —  The  seeds 
of  tobacco  are  very  small  and  are  planted  in  hot-beds  or  cold- 
frames.  On  reaching  a  certain  size,  the  seedlings  are  trans- 
planted to  the  field  by  hand  or  by  a  transplanting  machine. 
The  ground  where  the  seed-bed  is  to  be  situated  is  usually 
sterilized  to  kill  weed  seeds  and  disease  spores.  This  is  most 
commonly  accomplished  by  means  of  steam.  Steam  from  a 
portable  boiler  is  forced  into  an  inverted  metal  box  placed 
over  the  soil  of  the  seed-bed  until  the  soil  at  a  depth  of 
four  inches  is  at  a  temperature  of  175°  F.  After  an  hour  the 
metal  box  is  removed  and  the  process  repeated  on  another 
section  of  the  soil. 

The  rate  of  seeding  in  the  bed  varies  in  different  sections  of 
the  country.  A  teaspoonful  of  seed  to  one  hundred  square 
feet  of  bed  is  about  the  average,  although  some  growers  sow 
this  quantity  on  two  hundred  square  feet.  In  order  to  secure 
an  even  distribution,  the  seed  is  mixed  with  two  quarts  of  land- 
plaster,  bone-meal,  or  finely  sifted  wood-ashes.  The  seeds 
are  covered  by  pressing  them  into  the  soil  with  a  plank  or  a 
roller.  After  sowing  the  seed,  the  beds  are  covered  with  cheese- 
cloth or  glass.  The  soil  is  watered  frequently,  but  it  must  not 
be  kept  too  wet.  Ventilation  in  the  bed  is  necessary  and  the 
temperature  must  not  get  high  enough  to  burn  the  plants. 

140.  Cultural  methods.  —  The  field  where  the  plants  are 
to  be  set  must  be  put  into  good  physical  condition.  The 
methods  of  fertilizing  the  soil  vary  in  the  different  sections 
and  with  the  type  of  tobacco  grown.  The  spacing  of  the 
plants  in  the  fields  varies  with  the  type  of  tobacco,  ranging 
from  rows  thirty-four  to  forty  inches  apart  with  plants  four- 
teen to  twenty-eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  In  some  sec- 
tions the  plants  are  grown  in  hills  varying  from  thirty-two  to 
thirty-six  inches  apart  each  way. 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco 


235 


The  field  is  cultivated  frequently  during  the  growing  season, 
beginning  soon  after  the  plants  are  set  and  continuing  until 
they  become  too  large  for  the  cultivators  to  be  pulled  between 
the  rows. 

Topping  the  plants  is  a  method  practiced  in  tobacco 
culture.  This  consists  in  removing  the  flower-buds  and  a 
portion  of  the  top.  The  nourishment  that  would  be  used  to 
develop  these  parts  is  sent  into  the  leaves  and  causes  a  better 


Fig.  97.  —  Field  of  tobacco. 

development  of  leaf,  which  is  the  valuable  part  of  the  plant. 
After  the  plants  have  been  topped,  they  send  out  suckers  from 
the  axils  of  the  leaves ;  if  these  were  allowed  to  grow  they 
would  rob  the  leaves  on  the  main  stalk  of  fertility.  To  offset 
this  the  suckers  when  about  two  inches  long  are  removed 
(Fig.  97). 

141.  Harvesting  and  curing.  —  Tobacco  is  harvested  either 
by  cutting  off  the  whole  plant  or  by  removing  the  leaves  as 
they  ripen;  not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time.  In  the  former 
method  the  stalks  are  cut  off  close  to  the  ground  as  soon  as 


236 


Effective  Farming 


the  middle  leaves  turn  light  green.  The  plants  are  carefully 
laid  on  the  ground  where  they  remain  until  the  leaves  have 
wilted  enough  to  avoid  much  breaking  when  handled.  Each 
plant  is  then  hung  on  a  four-foot  lath  by  piercing  it  near  the 
base  with  a  steel  point  attached  to  the  end  of  the  lath  (Fig. 
98).  Usually  six  plants  are  placed  on  a  lath  and  these  are 
hung  on  racks  on  the  wagon  and  hauled  to  the  curing  barn. 
They  are  hung  in  tiers  with  a  space  of  six  to  twelve  inches  be- 
tween the  laths.     When  harvesting  by  the  second  method,  the 


Fig.  98.  —  Harvesting  tobacco  by  cutting  the  stalk,  showing  method  of 
spearing  the  plant  on  the  stick. 


leaves  as  they  ripen  are  picked  from  the  plants,  five  pickings 
usually  being  made.  The  leaves  are  laid  in  the  spaces  between 
the  rows  and  later  carried  to  the  curing  barn  where  they  are 
strung  on  cords  attached  to  four-foot  laths.  These  laths  with 
the  plants  are  hung  in  the  barn  where  the  leaves  cure. 

The  method  of  curing  varies  with  the  type  of  tobacco.  In 
the  air-cured  method  the  barn  is  provided  with  ventilators 
which  are  opened  to  secure  ventilation  and  the  tobacco  is 
then  subjected  to  a  slow  air  curing.  In  the  fire-cured  method 
the  tobacco  in  the  barn  is  treated  by  artificial  heat. 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco  237 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  cane  sirup  and  molasses? 

2.  Why  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  necessary  in  soils  planted 
to  sugar-cane? 

3.  In  Louisiana  why  are  the  tops  and  leaves  of  sugar-cane  that  are 
left  in  the  fields  burned  each  year  ? 

4.  Describe  the  methods  employed  in  harvesting  sugar-cane. 

5.  Describe  vegetative  and  fruiting  branches  of  cotton. 

6.  Describe  the  cotton  blossom. 

7.  What  qualities  determine  the  difference  in  value  of  the  various 
lots  of  cotton? 

8.  Tell  the  difference  between  long-staple  and  short-staple  upland 
cotton. 

9.  Why  is  sea-island  cotton  not  grown  on  the  Piedmont  section 
of  the  South? 

10.  State  the  uses  of  cotton  and  of  cotton  seed. 

11.  Why  should  shallow  cultivation  be  employed  for  cotton? 

12.  What  methods  are  used  to  combat  the  boll- weevil?    the  boll- 
worm? 

13.  Why  is  tobacco  not  grown  in  more  sections  of  the  country? 

14.  Define :    cigar  tobacco,  export  tobacco,  and  manufacturing  to- 
bacco. 

15.  Why  is  the  ground  sterilized  where  a  tobacco  seed-bed  is  to  be 
planted  ?     How  is  this  usually  done  ? 

16.  How  is  an  even  distribution  of  the  seed  secured  in  the  tobacco 
seed-bed  ? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  the  topping  of  tobacco  plants  and  why  and 
how  is  this  done?     Why  is  it  necessary  to  sucker  the  plants? 

18.  Describe  the  two  methods  of  harvesting  tobacco. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Propagation  of  sugar-cane.  —  Examine  a  stalk  of  sugar-cane 
and  notice  the  buds  at  each  node.  Describe  their  size  and  arrange- 
ment on  the  stem.  In  the  fall  collect  several  stalks  of  cane.  Protect 
half  of  them  during  the  winter  by  a  covering  of  soil  and  allow  the  other 
half  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather.  In  February  or  March  plant  some 
of  each  lot  of  cane  and  observe  the  results.  Examine  the  buds  of  those 
that  remain  by  cutting  lengthwise  through  them.  Is  there  a  difference 
in  appearance  of  the  buds? 


238 


Effective  Farming 


2.  Characteristics  of  sugar-cane.  —  Secure  plants,  roots,  and  stems 
of  sugar-cane,  corn,  wheat,  and  a  tall-growing  grass  and  compare  them. 
To  what  family  does  sugar-cane  belong? 

3.  Cropping  methods  for  sugar-cane.  —  Visit  cane  fields  at  the 
planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting  seasons  and  write  description 
of  the  methods  followed.  Visit,  also,  a  cane  mill  while  in  operation 
and  study  the  methods  of  making  sugar  and  molasses. 

4.  Characteristics  of  the  cotton  plant.  —  In  the  fall  visit  a  cotton 
field  and  study  the  characteristics  of  the  plants.  Notice  the  root  sys- 
tem, the  kind  of  stem,  the  shape  of  the  plant,  the  vegetative  branches, 
the  fruiting  branches,  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  the  shape  of  the 
leaves,  the  parts  of  the. flowers,  and  the  shape  of  the  bolls  (bolls  and 
flowers  are  in  the  field  at  the  same  season),  the  number  of  locks,  and  the 
length  of  the  fiber. 

5.  Pests  of  cotton.  —  Study  the  life  history  of  the  boll-weevil  and 
the  boll-worm  and  if  these  pests  are  prevalent  in  your  vicinity,  visit 
the  fields  to  study  the  insects,  and  their  work.  Write  to  your  state 
experiment  station  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  publications  about  these  insects.  Follow  the  same  plan  for  cotton- 
wilt  and  root-rot. 

6.  The  judging  of  cotton.  —  Using  the  score-card  below,  judge  sev- 
eral samples  of  cotton.  For  complete  directions  concerning  cotton 
judging  see  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  294. 


Score-card  for  the  Cotton  Plant 


The  Cotton  Plant 


Plant,  vigorous,  stocky,  25  points : 

Size,  medium  to  large  as  influenced  by  soil,  location, 

season,  and  variety 

Form,  symmetrical,  spreading,  conical,  height,  and 

spread  according  to  soil,  etc 

Stalk,  minimum  amount  of  wood  in  proportion  to 

fruit 

Branches,  springing  from  base,  strong,  vigorous,  in 

pairs,  short-jointed,  inclined  upward  .  .  .  .  . 
Head,  well  branched  and  filled,  fruited  uniformly     . 


Score 


Per- 
fect 


Stu-     Cor- 
dent's  rected 


Sugar-cane,  Cotton,  and  Tobacco 


239 


Score-card  for  the  Cotton  Plant  {Continued) 


Score 

The  Cotton  Plant 

Per- 
fect 

stu- 
dent's 

Cor- 
rected 

Fruiting,  24  points : 

Bolls,  large,  abundant,  uniformly  developed,  plump, 
sound,  firm,  well  rounded,  apex  obtuse,  singly  or  in 
clusters 

4 
4 

4 
4 
4 
4 

12 
12 

6 
5 

5 
5 
5 

1 

Number  of  bolls,  according  to  variety,  soil,  and  season 

.    Bolls  per  plant,  thin  uplands,  10-20  ;  fertile  uplands, 
20-25;   "bottoms,"    50-100;     special    selection, 
100-500       

Bolls  per  pound  of  seed  cotton,  large,  40-60 ;    me- 
dium, 60-75;  small,  80-110 

Character  of  bolls,  number  of  locks  3  to  5 ;    kind  of 
sepals ;   retention  of  cotton 

Opening  of  bolls,  uniform  including  top  crop,  classify 

as  good,  medium,  poor 

Yield  —  standard  1  bale  per  acre,  30  points  : 

Seed  cotton,  estimated  by  average  plant,  distance 
of  planting,  per  cent  of  stand,  plants  per  acre; 
thin  uplands,  10,000;  fertile  uplands,  6500;  "bot- 
toms," 4500;   distance  of  plants  3|  by  1|  feet,  4| 
by  1|  feet,  4|  by  2  feet,  respectively 

Per  cent  lint,  not  less  than  30,  standard  33  to  35     . 

Seeds,  30-50  per  boll,  large,  plump,  easily  delinted, 
color,  according  to  variety ;  germination  not  less 
than  95  per  cent 

Quality  and  character  of  lint,  21  points  : 

Strength,  tensile  strain  good,  even  throughout  length 

Length,  common  standards  for  upland,  short  |  to 

1  inch,  premium  1  xV  to  1  finches;  long  staple,  l^V 

inches  and  better 

Fineness,  fibers  soft,  silky,  and  pliable,  responsive  to 
touch 

Uniformity,    all    fibers    of    equal    length,    strength, 
fineness 

Purity,  color  dead  white ;   fiber  free  from  stain,  dirt, 
and  trash         .          

No.  of  plant Source 

Type 

Remarks  on  plant 

Date ,  19  . .  . .     Name  of  student 


240  Effective  Farming 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  599-611 ; 
247-258;   639-653.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Martineau,  G.,  Sugar,  Cane  and  Beet.     Pitman  Pub.  Co. 

Myrick,  H.,  American  Sugar  Industry.     Orange  Judd  Co. 

Spencer,  G.  L.,  A  Handbook  for  Cane-Sugar  Manufacturers.  Wiley  and 
Sons. 

Duggar,  J.  F.,  Southern  Field  Crops.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

U.  S.  Department  Agricultural  Bulletin  294,  Lessons  on  Cotton  for  the 
Rural  Common  Schools. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  591,  The  Classification  and  Grading  of  Cotton. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  601,  A  New  System  of  Cotton  Culture  and  its  Appli- 
cation. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  787,  Sea  Island  Cotton. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  775,  Losses  from  Selling  Cotton  in  the  Seed. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  512,  The  Boll-Weevil  Problem. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  501,  Cotton  Improvement  under  Weevil  Conditions. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  625,  Cotton  Wilt  and  Root-knot. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  555,  Cotton  Anthracnose. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  571,  Tobacco  Culture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  523,  Tobacco  Curing. 


CHAPTER  XII 

FRUIT-GROWING 

Classification  of  fruits. 
Soils  for  fruits. 
Air  drainage  in  fruit-culture. 
Pruning  of  fruit-trees. 

Need  for  pruning. 

Winter  and  summer  pruning. 

Tools  used  for  pruning. 

How  to  remove  a  branch. 
Spraying  of  fruit-trees. 

Materials  used  for  spraying. 

Equipment  for  spraying. 

Spray  schedules. 
Cultural  methods. 

Time  for  planting. 

Distances  for  planting. 

Systems  of  planting. 

Trimming  the  nursery  trees. 

Preparation  of  the  soil. 

Clean  cultivation  and  sod  culture. 
Harvesting  of  fruit. 
Pests  of  fruit  plants. 

San  Jos6  scale,  codlin-moth,  apple-tree  tent-caterpillar,  plant- 
lice,  leaf  blister-mite,  bud-moth,  plum  curculio,  borers, 
apple-scab,  bitter-rot,  brown-rot,  apple-blotch. 

The  growing  of  fruit  is  for  two  purposes  :  to  produce  a  supplj^ 
for  home  use,  and  to  obtain  revenue  from  a  product  grown  for 
market.  There  are  so  many  species  of  fruit  plants,  and  so 
many  varieties  of  each  fruit,  that  the  home-maker  has  almost 
endless  choice.  The  entire  year  can  be  covered  in  many  parts 
of  the  country,  from  the  last  winter  apple  to  the  strawberry 
and  other  small-fruits,  cherries,  apricots,  grapes,  peaches,  plums, 
B  241 


242  Effective  Farming 

pears,  and  others.  In  warm  regions,  the  persimmon  and  citrus 
fruits,  and  many  others,  are  grown.  The  home  fruit  planta- 
tion should  be  encouraged  as  a  source  of  supplies  and  pleasure. 
Commercial  fruit-growing  has  now  reached  a  great  develop- 
ment in  North  America.  This  is  particularly  true  of  apples, 
peaches,  and  citrus  fruits.  Great  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  insects  and  diseases  affecting  the  fruit  crops,  and  also  to 
methods  of  handling  the  products.  As  fruit-trees  will  continue 
to  bear  even  under  neglect,  careless  growers  are  likely  to  give 
little  attention  to  them ;  yet  these  plants  respond  to  good  care 
as  readily  as  others,  and  it  is  only  under  the  best  conditions  that 
profitable  production  is  to  be  expected. 

142.  Classification  of  fruits.  —  The  growing  of  fruit  is  a 
very  important  agricultural  pursuit  in  the  United  States. 
Some  kind  of  fruit  is  produced  on  most  farms  and  in  many 
sections  the  growing  of  fruit  is  the  chief  industry.  According 
to  Bailey,  fruits  may  be  classified  under  four  heads:  (1)  tree- 
fruits,  including  apples,  pears,  quinces,  apricots,  plums,  cher- 
ries, nuts,  figs,  and  olives ;  (2)  vine  fruits,  including  grapes ; 
(3)  small-fruits,  including  currants,  blackberries,  raspberries, 
and  strawberries;  (4)  herb-hke  fruits,  including  bananas 
and  pineapples. 

143.  Soils  for  fruit.  —  Some  kinds  of  fruits  are  more  exact- 
ing as  to  soil  than  others.  Apples,  plums,  and  citrus  fruits 
seem  to  grow  fairly  well  in  most  kinds  of  soil,  although  there 
is  in  each  region  where  these  fruits  are  grown  a  soil  type  that 
is  best  suited  to  each.  Pears  do  best  on  clay  soil  and  peaches 
on  sandy  soil. 

The  drainage  of  land  devoted  to  fruit-culture  is  very  impor- 
tant ;  often  the  reason  for  lack  of  success  in  this  husbandry  is 
poor  soil  drainage.  The  subsoil  is  of  as  much  importance  as 
the  surface  soil  in  determining  fruit  adaptation  to  land.  A  soil 
with  an  impervious  subsoil  near  the  surface  means  one  with  a 
shallow  zone  for  the  tree  roots.  Such  land  should  not  be  planted 
to  fruit. 


Fruit-growing 


243 


144.  Air  drainage  in  fruit-culture.  —  An  important  factor 
in  fruit  production  is  air  drainage.  Cold  air  is  heavier  than 
warm  air  and  drains  down  hill  and  remains  in  low  places,  and 
these    areas    are    more 

subject  to  frost  than 
higher  areas.  Frost  at 
blossoming  time  will 
injure  the  blossoms. 
Often  when  orchards  are 
planted  on  hillsides,  the 
blossoms  on  trees  near 
the  bottom  of  the  hill 
will  be  injured  by  frost, 
while  those  higher  up 
the  slope  will  escape 
damage.  Thus  the  se- 
lection of  a  site  where 
late  frosts  seldom  kill 
the  blossoms  is  of  im- 
portance. 

145.  Pruning  of  fruit- 
trees. —  A  phase  of 
work  that  must  be  given 
proper  attention  by  an 
orchardist  is  the  prun- 
ing of  the  trees.  Prun- 
ing means  the  removal 
of  certain  branches. 
This  is  done  in  order 
to  allow  the  remaining 
ones  sufficient  room  and 
light  for  proper  develop- 
ment. Figs.  99  and  100  show  a  peach  tree  before  and  after 
pruning.  Most  trees  produce  too  many  branches.  In  trees 
that  grow  naturally,  the  surplus  branches  are  crowded  out  by 


Fig.  99.  —  Peach  tree  in  need  of  pruning. 


244 


Effective  Farming 


adjacent  ones  —  that  is,  nature  prunes  the  trees.  Ingrowing 
fruit,  the  orchardist  must  do  this  if  he  is  to  secure  the  full 
benefits  from  his  trees. 

Need  for  pruning.  —  On  trees  that  grow  very  tall,  it  is  usually 
good  practice  to  cut  back  the  main  branches,  thus  giving  the 

tree  a  more  spreading 
form  in  order  that  it 
may  be  easily  sprayed 
and  cared  for  and  the 
fruit  easily  gathered. 
Often  pruning  is  done 
to  lessen  the  ravages  of 
such  diseases  as  bhght 
and  canker.  These  dis- 
eases spread  rapidly 
from  branch  to  branch 
and  from  tree  to  tree, 
and  the  removal  of  dis- 
eased branches  may  pre- 
vent the  spread.  It 
is  always  good  practice 
to  remove  and  burn 
any  diseased  portion  of 
a  fruit-tree.  Trees 
planted  at  regular  dis- 
tances apart  must  be 
pruned  or  their  branches 
will  «grow  together  and 
interfere  with  the  or- 
chard operations.  Also,  trees  like  the  peach,  which  bear  fruit 
on  the  new  wood  at  the  outside  of  the  tree,  should  be  pruned 
regularly  in  order  that  the  weight  of  the  fruit  be  kept  near  the 
body  and  main  branches. 

Winter  and  summer  pruning.  —  Pruning  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year  has  different  effects  on  the  tree.     Pruning  in  winter 


Fig.  100. 


Same  tree  as  shown  in  Fig.  99 
after  pruning. 


Fruit-growing  245 

tends  toward  the  production  of  branches  and  leaves ;  pruning 
in  summer,  toward  blossoms  and  fruit  production.  In  a  rightly 
pruned  orchard,  there  is  a  balance  between  these  growths. 
Excessive  pruning  in  the  winter  will  result  in  the  formation  of 
many  water  sprouts  and  much  foliage,  and  the  production  of 
fruit  will  be  checked.  Excessive  pruning  in  the  summer  will 
often  diminish  the  wood  growth  too  much.  In  practice  orchard- 
ists  prune  their  trees  a  Uttle  each  winter,  and  in  the  summer, 
whenever  they  see  a  branch  that  should  be  removed,  they  cut  it 
off.  If  a  young  orchard  is  properly  pruned  from  the  beginning, 
the  trees  will  be  kept  in  a  good  balance  and  the  best  results  ob- 
tained.    If  pruning  is  neglected,  poor  results  must  be  expected. 

Tools  used  for  pruning.  —  Knives,  shears,  and  saws  are 
the  tools  used  in  pruning.  For  small  trees  knives  and  shears 
are  all  that  are  usually  necessary;  for  large  trees  saws  must 
sometimes  be  used.  Several  types  of  saws  are  on  the  market 
and  care  must  be  taken  to  select  a  kind  that  will  not  injure 
adjacent  branches.  Saws  with  teeth  on  both  edges  of  the 
blade  are  not  satisfactory,  because  they  are  likely  to  saw  into 
the  wood  of  an  adjacent  branch. 

How  to  remove  a  branch.  —  When  removing  a  branch,  one 
should  be  sure  to  cut  close  to  the  parent  branch.  Stubs  left 
on  the  tree  are  a  source  of  injury ;  the  wood  of  the  stub  soon 
decays  and  this  decay  enters  the  tree.  When  pruning  off  a 
large  limb,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  splitting  the  limb 
to  which  it  is  attached.  A  cut  should  first  be  made  an  inch 
or  so  into  the  limb  on  the  underside,  then  an  incision  cut 
on  the  upper  side  about  an  inch  or  so  nearer  the  parent  branch. 
The-  hmb  can  then  be  sawed  off.  Without  this  precaution 
the  weight  of  the  limb  may  cause  the  bark  on  the  lower  side 
to  split  and  be  carried  down  on  the  parent  branch.  After  the 
cuts  have  been  made  in  this  way  the  wound  should  be  trimmed 
close  to  the  tree.  All  wounds  except  small  ones  should  be 
painted  over  with  white-lead  paint  or  some  wound  dressing  to 
stop  the  entrance  of  rot-producing  organisms. 


246 


Effective  Farming 


146.  Spraying  of  fruit-trees.  —  Like  pruning,  spraying  is 
an  important  detail  of  orchard  management.  Fruit-trees  are 
subject  to  many  insect  and  fungous  pests  and  it  is  necessary 
to  combat  these  successfully  if  profitable  crops  are  to  be  pro- 
duced. 

Materials  used  for  spraying.  —  Insecticides  and  fungicides 
are  used  as  spray  materials  to  fight  the  pests.  An  insecticide 
is  any  substance  that  kills  insects  and  a  fungicide  is  any  sub- 
stance that  kills 
fungi.  Insecticides 
are  of  two  general 
classes  —  poisonous 
and  contact.  The 
former  contain  poi- 
son and  are  used 
to  kill  insects  with 
biting  mouth  parts. 
Those  most  used  are 
arsenate  of  lead, 
paris  green,  arsenite 
of  lime,  london  pur- 
ple, and  hellebore. 
All  these,  except 
hellebore,  contain 
arsenic  in  some 
form.  Hellebore  is  made  from  the  roots  of  the  white  hellebore. 
A  contact  insecticide  is  a  substance  used  to  kill  insects  by 
coming  in  contact  with  their  bodies.  Insects  with  sucking 
mouths  cannot  be  killed  by  means  of  poison  and  must,  there- 
fore, be  combated  with  contact  insecticides.  Plant-lice  and 
the  scale  insects  are  usually  killed  in  this  way.  The  chief  con- 
tact insecticides  are  boiled  lime  sulfur,  self-boiled  lime  sulfur, 
miscible  oils,  distillate  oils,  kerosene  emulsion,  and  tobacco 
preparations. 

The  fungicides   used   in  combating  the  fungi  of  fruit-trees- 


Fig.  101. 


Sprayed  trees  in  same  orchard  as 
shown  in  Fig.  102, 


Fruit-growing 


247 


are  usually  some  solution  containing  copper.  The  chief  ones 
are  bordeaux  mixture,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  copper- 
sulfate  solution,  sulfur  dust,  potassium  sulfide,  boiled  lime 
sulfur,  and  self-boiled  lime  sulfur. 

In  addition  to  the  insecticides  and  the  fungicides  listed,  many 
proprietary  preparations  are  on  the  market,  a  number  of  which 
give  excellent  results.  As  a  rule,  they  are  somewhat  easier 
to  prepare  for  use  than  the  home-made  mixtures  and  for  this 
reason  are  often  preferred. 

Many  of  the  insect  and  fungous  pests  occur  on  the  fruit-trees 
at  the  same  time  and,  when  the  mixing  will  have  no  injurious 
effects  on  the  trees,  orchardists  combine  the  insecticides  and 
fungicides  and  ap- 
ply them  at  one 
spraying. 

Figures  101  and 
102  show  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of 
spraying.  Fig.  101 
illustrates  sprayed 
trees  and  Fig.  102 
unsprayed  trees  in 
the  same  orchard. 
Notice  the  differ- 
ence in  the  foliage 
of  the  trees. 

Equipment  for 
spraying.  —  An  or- 
chardist  has  his 
choice  of  many  types  of  sprayers  when  purchasing  equipment. 
The  outfits  range  from  small  knapsack  sprayers  and  barrel 
outfits  to  gas  power  outfits.  Figs.  103  to  105  show  various 
types  of  equipment  for  spraying. 

Spray  schedules.  —  To  be  effective,  spraying  must  be  done 
thoroughly  and  at  the  life  period  of  the  insect  and  fungus  during 


Fig.  102. 


Unsprayed  trees  in  same  orchard  as 
shown  in  Fig.  101. 


248 


Effective  Farming 


■Hj 

^^ 

^M 

^Hi  "^ 

IE 

^S^i 

i-          •^.^uQBE 

miS^  '^«»«6iB*— 

Fig.  103.  —  Gas-engine  sprayer. 


:g 

Iw^" 

^^fcfe 

r....^ja^ 

'^f^H^"^"'^! 

Ifli^H 

^Km 

>»^(|^^^^HM||^^^^^^H 

H^pIBk 

Wtjm 

-''"""^^H^B 

IwE 

9 

^^^ 

s 

'ip^HB^ 

■hBSJ 

HI 

-  ^HH 

HHHUilil 

Hi 

Fig.  104.  —  Hand-power  sprayer. 


Fruit-growing 


249 


250  Effective  Farming 

which  they  can  be  killed.  The  life  histories  of  the  pests  have 
been  studied  by  scientists  and  the  best  time  to  combat  each  of 
them  has  been  determined.  To  aid  the  orchardist,  spray 
schedules  are  prepared.  A  general  schedule  of  sprayings  for 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  quinces,  apricots,  cur- 
rants, gooseberries,  and  grapes  is  given  on  the  next  few  pages. 
With  the  exception  of  the  part  dealing  with  grapes,  it  has  been 
reviewed  by  John  W.  Roberts,  in  charge  of  orchard  spraying 
experiment  in  the  Office  of  Fruit  Disease  Investigations  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  schedule  for 
grapes  is  from  a  Government  publication.  The  descriptions 
of  most  of  the  pests  are  given  in  the  last  part  of  the  chapter. 

Spray  Schedules 

Apples 
First  Spraying. 

During  the  dormant  season  preferably  just  as  the  leaf-buds  are 
sweUing,  but  before  they  are  open,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  solution  that 
has  been  diluted  to  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03.  To  each  fifty  gallons  of 
spray  material  add  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste.  The  lime 
sulfur  is  for  the  San  Jose  scale  and  the  arsenate  of  lead  is  for  the  leaf 
blister-mite,  the  bud-moth,  and  the  cigar-case  bearer.  This  spray  is 
often  called  the  dormant  spray. 

Second  Spraying. 

About  the  time  the  fruit  blossoms  start  to  look  pink  at  the  tips,  but 
before  they  are  open,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  diluted  to  1.007  specific 
gravity,  with  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  added  to  each  fifty 
gallons  of  spray  material.  This  spray  is  to  combat  the  bud-moth,  the 
cigar-case  bearer,  the  canker-worm,  the  tent-caterpillar,  and  the  apple- 
scab.  The  scab  is  combated,  because  the  lime  sulfur  is  a  fungicide  as 
well  as  an  insecticide.  This  spray  is  often  omitted  in  commercial 
orcharding,  but  it  usually  pays  in  the  home  orchard. 

Third  Spraying. 

After  about  two-thirds  of  the  petals  have  fallen  from  the  trees,  spray 
with  the  same  mixture  as  given  for  the  second  spray.  This  is  to  control 
the  codlin-moth,  canker-worms,  the  bud-moth,  apple-scab,  and  the  leaf- 
spot.  This  spray  should  never  be  omitted,  as  it  is  the  most  important 
of  aU. 


Fruit-growing  251 

Fourth  Spraying. 

If  apple  blotch  is  prevalent,  make  a  fourth  spraying  three  to  four 
weeks  after  the  third  with  arsenate  of  lead  and  bordeaux  mixture, 
4-4-50.  This  controls,  in  addition  to  the  apple-blotch,  the  codlin- 
moth,  the  canker-worm,  the  leaf-spot,  and  the  apple-scab. 

Fifth  Spraying. 

If  bitter-rot  is  prevalent,  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-6-50,  about 
six  weeks  after  the  blossoms  faU. 

Sixth  Spraying. 

Spray  eight  or  nine  weeks  after  the  petals  fall  with  bordeaux  mix- 
ture and  arsenate  of  lead.  This  is  for  late  broods  of  the  codlin-moth 
and  late  infections  of  the  apple-scab.  Often  this  spray  is  omitted, 
but  if  fancy  fruit  is  desired  the  grower  will  find  that  the  spraying 
will  pay. 

Emergency  Sprayings. 

If  at  any  time  during  the  season  green  aphis  appear,  spray  before  the 
leaves  begin  to  curl,  with  either  of  the  following :  whale-oil  soap  solu- 
tion made  up  of  one  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  to  six  gallons  of  water ; 
a  tobacco  preparation  that  contains  2.7  per  cent  of  nicotine  diluted 
with  one  hundred  parts  of  water,  or  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  one 
part  of  the  stock  emulsion  to  seventeen  parts  of  water.  The  method 
of  making  the  emulsion  is  given  later. 


Pears 
First  Spraying. 

Just  as  the  leaf-bUds  are  swelling,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  solution 
of  1.03  specific  gravity  with  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  added  to 
each  fifty  gallons  of  spray  material.  This  is  to  combat  the  San  Jose 
scale  and  the  leaf  blister-mite. 

Second  Spraying. 

After  the  leaf-buds  are  open,  but  before  the  first  blossoms  are  open, 
spray  with  lime  sulfur  of  1.006  specific  gravity  or  with  bordeaux  mix- 
ture, 4-4-50.     This  is  to  combat  the  pear-scab. 

Third  Spraying. 

When  the  calyxes  of  the  fruit  are  still  open  and  the  petals  of  the 
blossoms  are  still  falling,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  of  1.006  specific  gravity 
with  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  added  to  each  fifty  gallons  of  spray 
material.  This  is  to  combat  the  codlin-moth,  the  pear-scab,  and  other 
fungous  diseases. 


252  Effective  Farming 

Fourth  Spraying. 

From  ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  the  third  spraying,  spray  again, 
using  the  same  kind  of  mixture.  This  is  to  combat  the  codlin-moth  and 
the  pear-scab. 

Emergency  Sprayings. 

If  the  pear  psylla  is  present  in  the  locality,  spray  just  after  the 
blossoms  fall  with  kerosene  emulsion,  whale-oil  soap,  or  a  tobacco  prep- 
aration, using  the  same  dilutions  as  given  for  the  emergency  spraying 
of  apples.  Repeat  the  spraying  at  intervals  of  three  to  seven  daj^s 
until  the  pest  is  under  control. 

If  the  green  aphis  appear,  spray  as  directed  for  the  control  of  this 
pest  on  apple  trees. 

Peaches 
First  Spraying. 

During  the  dormant  season,  before  the  buds  open,  spray  with  lime 
sulfur  solution  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03.  This  is  to  combat  the  San 
Jos6  scale  and  the  peach  leaf -curl. 

Second  Spraying. 

Just  after  the  petals  fall,  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of 
one  and  one-half  pounds  of  the  paste  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  This 
is  to  combat  the  curculio.     Usually  this  spray  may  be  omitted. 

Third  Spraying. 

As  the  calyxes  of  the  fruit  are  shedding,  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
one  and  one-half  pounds,  and  hme,  three  pounds,  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
This  is  to  combat  the  curculio,  the  scab,  and  the  brown-rot. 

Fourth  Spraying. 

Three  weeks  after  the  third  spraying,  spray  with  self-boiled  lime 
sulfur  made  in  the  proportion  of  eight  pounds  of  lime  and  eight  pounds 
of  sulfur  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  This  is  to  combat  the  scab  and  the 
brown-rot. 

Fifth  Spraying. 

Four  weeks  before  the  fruit  is  expected  to  ripen,  spray  with  self- 
boiled  lime  sulfur.  This  is  to  combat  the  scab  and  the  brown-rot. 
Early  varieties  of  peaches  will  not  require  this  spraying. 

Plums 
First  Spraying. 

Just  before  the  buds  open,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  solution  of  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  1.03.     This  is  to  combat  the  San  Jose  scale. 


Fruit-growing  253 

Second  Spraying. 

Just  after  the  petals  fall,  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  using  one  and 
one-half  pounds  of  the  paste  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.     This  is  to  com- 
bat the  plum  curculio. 
Third  Spraying. 

Ten  days  after  the  petals  fall,  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  one  and 
one-half  pounds,  and  lime,  three  pounds,  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.     This 
is  to  combat  the  plum  curculio. 
Fourth  Spraying. 

About  two  weeks  after  the  third  spraying,  spray  with  self -boiled  lime 
sulfur,  8-8-50  formula.     This  is  to  combat  the  leaf -spot  and  the  brown- 
rot. 
Fifth  Spraying. 

About  a  month  before  the  fruit  is  due  to  ripen,  spray  with  the  same 
kind  of  materials  as  used  for  the  fourth  spraying.  This  is  to  combat 
the  fruit-spot  and  the  brown-rot. 

Sour  Cherries 
First  Spraying. 

Just  before  the  leaf-buds  open,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  solution  of  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.03.     This  is  to  combat  the  San  Jos6  scale. 
Second  Spraying. 

As  soon  as  the  petals  fall,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  of  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.007,  adding  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  to  fifty  gallons 
of  spray  material.     This  is  to  combat  the  plum  curculio  and  the  differ- 
ent fungous  diseases. 
Third  Spraying. 

Three  or  four  weeks  after  the  second  spraying,  spray  with  the  same 
kind  of  materials  as  used  for  the  second  spraying.     This  is  to  combat  the 
same  pests  as  listed  in  the  second  spraying. 
Fourth  Spraying. 

In  the  case  of  late  cherries,  another  spraying  of  the  same  materials 
may  be  applied  about  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  third  application. 
Fifth  Spraying. 

After  the  fruit  is  picked,  another  application  of  the  spray  material 
should  be  given.  This  will  rid  the  trees  of  pests  and  be  of  benefit  the 
following  year. 

Quinces 
First  Spraying. 

Just  before  the  blossoms  open,  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  6-6-50. 
Add  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  to  each  fifty  gallons  of  the 


254  Effective  Farming 

spray  mixture.     This  is  to  combat  the  leaf-spot,  the  fruit-spot,  rust, 
and  the  curcuHo. 

Second  Spraying. 

Just  as  the  last  petals  are  falling,  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture, 
3-4-50.  Add  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  to  each  fifty  gal- 
lons of  the  spray  mixture.  This  is  to  combat  the  codlin-moth  and  the 
pests  listed  for  the  first  spraying. 

Subsequent  Sprayings. 

At  intervals  of  about  ten  days,  if  the  fruit  and  foliage  seem  to  re- 
quire it,  spray  with  the  same  kind  of  materials  as  used  for  the  second 
spraying. 

Currants 
First  Spraying. 

Before  the  buds  open,  spray  mth  lime  sulfur  solution  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.03.     This  is  to  combat  the  San  Jose  scale. 

Second  Spraying. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  have  finished  blooming,  spray  with  bordeaux 
mixture,  4-5-50.  Add  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  to  each 
fifty  gallons  of  the  spray  materials.  This  is  to  combat  the  currant 
worm  and  the  leaf -spot. 

Third  Spraying. 

As  soon  as  the  fruit  has  been  harvested,  spray  with  the  same  kind  of 
materials  as  used  for  the  second  spraying.  This  is  for  the  pests  as 
listed  in  the  second  spraying.  If  the  currant  worm  is  not  found  on  the 
plants  at  the  time  of  the  third  spraying,  the  arsenate  of  lead  may  be 
omitted. 

Gooseberries 
First  and  Second  Sprayings. 

Spray  as  directed  for  the  first  and  second  sprayings  for  currants. 

Subsequent  Sprayings. 

As  soon  as  the  berries  have  set,  spray  with  lime  sulfur  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.008.  Every  ten  days  repeat  this  spraying,  using  lime 
sulfur  of  this  same  specific  gravity.  These  sprayings  are  to  combat  the 
gooseberry  mildew,  a  very  troublesome  pest. 

After  the  fruit  has  been  harvested,  spray  as  directed  for  the  third 
spraying  for  currants. 

Note.  —  The  pests  of  raspberries,  blackberries,  and  dewberries  are 
not,  as  a  rule,  combated  by  spraying ;  the  pests  of  these  plants  can 
usually  be  controlled  by  cutting  out  affected  canes. 


Fruit-growing  255 

Grape   Vines 

The  principal  insect  enemies  of  the  grape  are  the  grape-berry  moth, 
the  grape  root- worm,  the  rose  chafer,  the  grape  leaf -folder,  and  the 
eight-spotted  forester,  all  of  which  are  eating  insects ;  and  the  grape 
leaf-hopper  and  the  brown  grape  aphis,  sucking  insects.  The  prin- 
cipal diseases  which  attack  grapes  are  black-rot,  downy  mildew,  pow- 
dery mildew,  and  anthracnose. 

The  use  of  combination  spray  solutions  containing  chemicals  which 
act  as  insecticides  or  fungicides  is  advocated. 

First  Spraying. 

About  a  week  before  the  blossoms  open,  or  when  the  shoots  are 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long,  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-3-50, 
for  fungous  diseases,  adding  two  to  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
paste,  or  one  half  that  quantity  of  the  powdered  form,  for  flea-beetle, 
rose  chafer,  and  the  like. 

Second  Spraying. 

Just  after  the  blossoms  fall,  spray  with  the  same  materials  as  in  the 
first  application  for  the  same  fungous  diseases  and  insects  and  for  the 
grape-berry  moth,  grape  leaf -folder,  and  adults  of  the  grape  root-worm. 

Third  Spraying. 

About  two  weeks  later,  use  bordeaux  mixture  4-3-50,  arsenate  of  lead 
paste  two  to  three  pounds,  40  per  cent  nicotine  sulfate  one  part  to  1500 
parts  of  the  spray  mixture,  for  fungous  diseases,  berry  moth,  eight- 
spotted  forester,  grape  leaf -folder,  brown  grape  aphis,  grape  root-worm, 
and  grape  leaf-hopper.  To  destroy  the  leaf-hopper,  direct  the  spray 
against  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves.  To  control  the  berry  moth 
thoroughly,  coat  the  grape  bunches  with  the  spray. 

Fourth  Spraying. 

About  ten  days  later  or  when  the  fruit  is  nearly  grown,  if  black- 
rot  or  mildew  are  still  appearing,  spray  with  neutral  copper  sulfate  or 
verdigris  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

147.  Cultural  methods.  —  When  establishing  a  fruit  planta- 
tion, the  nursery  stock  must  be  purchased,  but  later  a  grower 
may  produce  to  advantage  at  least  a  part  of  what  he  requires. 
The  best  advice  that  can  be  given  concerning  buying  from  a 
nursery  is  to  deal  with  a  reliable  firm  and  order  long  enough 
ahead  to  enable  them  to  fill  the  order  from  good  stock.  In- 
ferior nursery  stock  should  always  be  avoided. 


250  Effective  Farming 

Time  for  planting.  —  Fruit-trees  are  planted  either  in  the 
fall  or  spring.  The  time  depends  on  the  climate  and  the  kind 
of  tree.  Except  in  Canada  and  the  extreme  northern  part  of 
the  United  States,  fall  planting  of  hardy  trees  like  the  apple, 
plum,  and  pear  has  the  advantage  that  the  trees  start  to  grow 
earlier  in  the  spring  than  spring-planted  trees.  In  the  case 
of  peaches,  quinces,  and  grapes,  spring  'planting  is  usually 
deemed  advisable,  because  the  roots  are  so  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  freezing  and  thawing  that  they  may  be  injured  dur- 
ing the  winter.  Nevertheless,  peaches  and  quinces  are  some- 
times successfully  planted  in  the  fall. 

Distances  for  planting.  —  Often  fruit  plants  are  set  too  close 
together.  The  trees  and  vines  send  out  their  roots  for  rela- 
tively long  distances  and  too  close  planting  means  lack  of  food 
and  interference  with  the  spraying,  harvesting,  and  other  work 
of  the  orchard.  Bailey  gives  the  following  as  the  outside  aver- 
age limit  for  fruits  in  the  Northeastern  States  : 

Apples 35  to  45  ft. 

Apples,  dwarf      .     .     .     .  10  to  15  ft. 

Pears,  standard   .     .     .     .  20  to  25  ft. 

Pears,  dwarf 12  ft.  to  1  rod 

Quinces 1  rod. 

Peaches  and  nectarines     .  20  ft. 

Plums 20  ft. 

Apricots 20  ft. 

Cherries,  sour      .     .     .     .  20  ft. 

Cherries,  sweet    .     .     .     .  30  ft. 

Pecans 40  ft. 

Grapes 6  X  8  to  8  X  10  ft. 

Currants 4  X  6  to  6  X  8  ft. 

Blackberries 4  X  7  to  6  X  9  ft. 

Raspberries 3  X  6  to  5  X  8  ft. 

Strawberries 1  X  3  or  4  ft. 

Cranberries 1  or  2  ft.  apart  each  way 


Fruit-growing  257 

Systems  of  planting.  —  Three  systems  are  in  use  for  laying  out 
orchards  for  tree-fruits.  These  are  (1)  rectangular,  in  which 
the  trees  occupy  the  corners  of  a  rectangle,  usually  a  square : 
(2)  quincunx,  in  which  the  trees  are  planted  in  squares  with 
an  extra  tree  in  the  center  of  the  square;  often  this  center 
tree  is  planted  as  a  filler  to  be  removed  when  the  others  have 
attained  a  certain  size ;  (3)  triangular,  or  hexagonal,  in  which 
the  trees  stand  equidistant  throughout  the  field.  Fig.  106 
illustrates  the  three  systems.  Each  of  these  systems  requires 
a  different  number  of  trees  for  a  given  area  when  planted  cer- 
tain distances  apart.     The  quincunx  and  triangular  systems 


Fig.  106.  —  Rectangular,  quincunx,  and  triangular  systems  of  setting 
orchard  trees. 

permit  of  more  trees  and  are  often  used  when  land  is  limited. 
The  rectangular  system  permits  of  easier  tillage  than  the  others 
and  is  often  preferred  for  this  reason. 

Trimming  the  nursery  trees.  —  Both  roots  and  tops  of  nursery 
trees  require  trimming.  The  tree  when  removed  from  the 
nursery  has  lost  much  of  its  root  system ;  if  planted  with  too 
much  top  the  reduced  root  system  would  fail  to  care  for  the 
foliage  and  the  newly  planted  tree  would  soon  die.  The 
trimming  of  the  roots  consists  in  removing  any  ragged  ends, 
and  if  there  are  one  or  two  long  roots  they  may  be  cut  back. 
No  very  specific  directions  can  be  given  as  to  how  much  to  trim 
the  tops.  The  amount  will  be  modified  by  the  age,  the  shape, 
the  species  of  the  tree,  and  by  the  climatic  conditions  of  the 


258 


Effective  Farming 


region  where  the  fruit  plantation  is  to  be  started.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  with  one-year-old  trees,  the  usual  practice 
is  to  cut  off  the  top  leaving  only  a  whip.  In  two-year-old  trees, 
if  the  tops  are  well  branched,  the  head  is  usually  started  at  the 
height  desired  at  the  time  of  planting.     A  portion  of  the  top 

and  about  half  the  length 
of  each  branch  is  removed. 
Fig.  107  shows  the  two 
methods  of  trimming  the 
trees.  To  insure  a  clean  cut, 
the  knife  blade  should  be 
placed  under  the  branch  and 
an  upward  cut  made. 

Preparation  of  the  soil.  — 
Fruit  plants  for  best  re- 
sults must  make  vigorous 
growth;  consequently  the 
soil  must  be  in  good  condi- 
tion when  they  are  planted. 
The  hole  in  which  a  young 
tree  or  bush  is  to  be  set 
should  be  deep  and  broad 
and  surface  soil  should  be 
placed  in  the  bottom  in 
order  that  the  soil  contain- 
ing humus  will  be  about  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  Trees 
should  be  set  an  inch  or  so 
deeper  than  they  stood  in 
the  nursery.  This  gives  the  earth  room  to  settle  and  the  tree 
will  later  stand  at  about  the  height  it  stood  in  the  nursery. 
The  roots  should  be  straightened  out  and  the  soil  packed  firmly 
about  them.  Using  the  fingers  to  get  the  earth  about  the  roots 
is  good  practice.  The  dirt  in  the  hole  should  be  tramped  down 
once  or  twice  during  the  filHng.     When  the  hole  has  been  filled 


i  gi        -y^s 

Up 

Fig.  107.  —  Nursery  trees  trimmed  for 
planting. 


Fruit-growing  259 

dirt  should  be  mounded  around  the  tree  slightly,  to  give  it  a 
chance  to  settle  without  forming  a  hollow  in  which  water  will 
lodge. 

Clean  cultivation  and  sod  culture.  —  The  question  of  tillage 
of  fruit  plantations  is  an  important  one.  With  bush-fruits, 
cultivation,  as  a  rule,  should  begin  in  the  spring,  be  interrupted 
for  a  time  when  the  teams  and  implements  would  injure  the 
fruit,  and  be  taken  up  again  after  the  fruit  has  been  harvested, 
and  continued  until  midsummer. 

Grapes  require  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation  from  early 
summer  until  after  they  blossom,  when  a  cover-crop  is  planted 
to  be  plowed  under  the  following  spring.  Peach,  plum,  quince, 
and  sour  cherry  orchards  are  usually  tilled  from  early  spring  until 
midsummer,  when  a  cover-crop  is  sown.  In  the  case  of  sweet 
cherries,  too  much  cultivation  may  result  in  so  much  wood 
growth  that  the  trees  will  not  yield  well.  If  the  grower  finds 
that  clean  cultivation  results  in  smaller  crops,  he  should  keep 
the  land  between  the  trees  in  a  cover-crop  for  two  or  three  years. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  in  regard  to  the  methods 
of  handling  apple  orchards.  Growers  agree  that  cultivation 
is  necessary  for  orchards  until  they  reach  the  bearing  age,  but 
many  claim  that  after  that  time  the  ground  need  not  be  culti- 
vated. What  is  called  the  sod-culture  system  is  advocated. 
This  consists  in  seeding  the  ground  to  clover  and  some  grass 
or  other  sod  crop,  cutting  the  growth,  and  allowing  it  to  remain 
in  the  orchard.  On  certain  soils  and  in  certain  climates,  or- 
chards maintained  in  this  way  have  been  profitable.  Sod- 
culture  does  not  mean  that  grass  is  cut  and  hauled  from  the  or- 
chard and  used  for  hay.  Such  practice  robs  the  ground  of 
fertility  and  is  not  a  good  method  to  adopt.  Opposed  to  those 
that  believe  in  sod-culture,  many  orchardists  contend  that 
the  clean  cultivation  of  mature  apple  orchards  is  just  as  neces- 
sary as  it  is  for  peaches  and  plums.  This  whole  question  is 
one  that  is  being  investigated  at  the  experiment  stations,  and 
many  bulletins  are  being  published  about  it. 


260 


Effective  Farming 


Citrus  fruits  are  kept  in  clean  cultivation  for  a  part  of  the 
year  and  in  cover-crops  the  remainder.  The  time  of  the  year 
when  the  land  is  tilled  varies  in  the  different  sections.  In 
Florida  the  ground  is  usually  kept  tilled  from  late  in  the  fall 
until  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  which  is  about  June  1. 
In  California  the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  spring,  about  March, 
and  kept  tilled  until  late  fall,  when  a  cover-crop  is  planted. 

148.  Harvesting  of  fruit.  —  Harvesting  is  a  very  important 
part  of  fruit-growing.     Each  kind  of  fruit  must  be  carefully 


SUM 

HI 

'  '"^^"^T  '^^^S^'M 

!^srv^PiiPB 

^       ^:-                              ~^ 

^^V 

^^m 

1 

Fig.   108.  —  Sorting-table  lined  with  canvas. 

handled,  for  bruised  products  will  decay  easily  and  quickly. 
A  good  method  is  to  handle  fruits  as  if  they  were  eggs.  When 
fruit  comes  out  of  storage,  bruised  spots  show  rotting  quickly. 
Large  growers  are  fully  aware  of  the  value  of  careful  handling 
of  fruit  and  many  of  them  go  so  far  as  to  require  their  pickers 
to  wear  cotton  gloves  to  prevent  finger-nail  scratches  and  other 
wounds  on  the  product.     Picking  receptacles  should  be  lined 


Fruit-growing  261 

with  burlap  or  canvas.  A  grain  sack  hung  over  the  shoulder 
is  poor  equipment  for  apple  picking;  nevertheless  they  are 
very  often  used.  Fruit  is  easily  bruised  by  knocking  the  sack 
against  the  ladder  and  branches  and  in  transferring  it  to  the 
sorting  table.  When  sorting  fruit,  as  much  care  is  necessary 
as  when  gathering  it.  Sorting-tables  lined  with  burlap  or 
canvas  prevent  much  bruising  (Fig.  108). 

Grading  of  the  product  is  necessary  in  fruit  selling.  A  well 
graded  basket  of  peaches,  for  example,  will  bring  more  on  the 
market  than  an  ungraded  one.  Often  it  pays  to  sort  fruit  to 
size.  A  basket  of  small  apples  of  uniform  size  will  usually  bring 
as  much  money  as  a  basket  of  large  and  small  ones  mixed. 

Honesty  of  pack  is  good  business.  When  a  grower  has  con- 
vinced his  customers  that  the  bottom  and  middle  of  a  container 
of  fruit  are  as  good  as  the  top,  he  has  done  much  toward  sell- 
ing his  produce  at  an  advance  over  the  market  price. 

149.  Pests  of  fruit  plants.  —  An  exhaustive  discussion  of 
the  pests  of  fruit  plants  would  require  more  space  than  can  here 
be  devoted  to  it.  Consequently  only  a  very  few  can  be  briefly 
discussed.  Each  kind  of  plant  has  pests  that  injure  it,  but 
fortunately  these  pests  can  be  controlled,  usually  by  spraying 
the  trees  with  insecticides  and  fungicides  (Figs.  103  to  105),  and 
in  some  cases,  as  in  the  California  citrus  groves,  by  fumigation 
of  the  trees  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  that  is  liberated  under- 
neath canvas  tents  placed  over  the  trees.  Fig.  109  shows  the 
vessel  in  which  are  the  materials  to  form  the  gas  being  placed 
under  the  tent.  Nursery  stock  is  sometimes  freed  of  pests  by 
fumigation,  also. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  work  of  insects  alone  causes 
a  loss  of  over  $700,000,000  each  year  in  the  United  States. 
Much  of  this  loss  could  be  prevented  by  proper  methods  of 
combating  the  pests. 

San  Jose  scale.  —  One  of  the  most  destructive  pests  of  fruit- 
trees  is  the  San  Jose  scale.  Its  chief  damage  is  to  tree-fruits 
and  currant  bushes.     Fortunately,  although  this  scale  cannot 


262 


Effective  Farming 


be  exterminated,  it  can  be  controlled  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  finest  fruit  can  be  produced  on  trees  where  the  pest  has 
existed  for  years.  To  control  the  pest  the  trees  and  shrubs 
should  be  sprayed  with  lime  sulfur  solution. 

The  living  scale  is  a  very  small,  soft  insect  concealed  beneath 
a  flat,  conical,  water-proof  protective  scale.  The  scale  can  be 
recognized  under  a  miscroscope  by  its  circular  shape,  black  tip 


m^ 

^^^^^^^^^^1  h_ p«.,-.  ...„,^., 

1 

IHiPiiP- 

Fig.  109. 


Fumigating  citrus  trees  in  California  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas 
to  kill  scale  insects. 


at  the  center  with  a  very  small  ring  around  it.  Fig.  110 
shows  the  characteristic  appearance  of  the  scale  on  twigs. 
In  the  winter  this  scale  is  about  three-fourths  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head  and  is  black  in  color.  This  is  known  as  the  winter-rest- 
ing stage.  By  spring  it  has  increased  to  about  the  size  of  a 
pin-head  and  becomes  brownish  in  color.  Like  other  insects 
of  this  kind,  it  attacks  its  host  by  inserting  its  proboscis  through 


Fruit-growing 


263 


the  outer  bark  into  the  sap-bearing  inner  bark  and  sometimes 
into  the  soft  wood. 

The  females  give  birth  to  Uving  young,  the  time  of  year  vary- 
ing with  cHmatic  conditions.  In  Pennsylvania  the  first  brood 
appears  from  about  June  1  to  15.  The  young  are  very  small ; 
without  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  they  look  like  specks  of  corn- 
meal,  but  when  magnified  are  seen  to  be  oval  in  shape,  to  have 
heads,  with  eyes,  antennae,  and  a  long  thread-like  proboscis. 
These  insects  crawl  about  on  the 
bark  and  leaves  of  the  trees  for  not 
longer  than  one  or  two  days  or  until 
they  find  a  suitable  place  in  which 
to  insert  their  proboscides  and  be- 
come fixed.  This  is  usually  in  the 
bark  of  twigs,  although  it  is  some- 
times in  the  leaves  or  the  fruit. 
As  soon  as  they  become  fixed,  they 
begin  to  secrete  a  waxy  covering 
which  comes  from  the  pores  of  their 
skin.  Thus  a  scale  is  formed  over 
the  insect,  after  which  it  loses  its 
head,  eyes,  and  antennae  and  does 
not  resemble  the  crawling  insect. 
The  insects  do  not  usually  crawl 
more  than  five  or  six  feet  from  the 
female  that  gave  them  birth.  Often  they  fix  very  near  to 
her,  even  overlapping  her  scale  covering. 

The  young  fixed  scales  are  at  first  white  and  circular  in  shape 
and  have  the  central  point.  This  is  their  second  stage.  They 
inject  poison  into  the  plant  where  they  are  fixed,  suck  out  sap, 
and  grow.  In  a  few  weeks  they  reach  the  third  or  black  stage, 
the  winter-resting  condition.  They  continue  to  grow  until 
they  reach  their  full  size,  when  they  are  the  brownish  color  of 
the  adult  scale.  In  summer  this  happens  about  a  month  after 
they  are  born.     They  then  begin  to  bear  young  and  this  con- 


FiG.  110.  —  San  Jos6  scale  on 
twig  (enlarged). 


264 


Effective  Farming 


tinues  at  the  rate  of  several  a  day  for  a  month  or  so.  During 
the  winter  all  fully  grown  individuals  and  those  not  old  enough 
to  have  reached  the  protected  resting  condition  die.  About 
90  per  cent  die  naturally  in  this  way,  but  there  are  still  large 
numbers  left.  It  has  been  estimated  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  that  it  is  possible  for  an  individual 

to  become  the  ancestor  of  nearly  a 
billion  and  a  half  insects  in  a  year. 
Codlin-moth.  —  The  worms  in  ap- 
ples, pears,  and  quinces  are  the  re- 
sult of  the  codlin-moth.  These 
moths  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  and  are  responsible  for  the 
annual  loss  of  thousands  of  dollars' 
worth  of  fruit.  The  mature  moth 
is  grayish  brown  in  color  and  about 
three-fourths  inch  across  the  ex- 
panded wings.  The  females  lay  eggs 
on  the  foliage  of  the  trees.  The 
first  lot  is  laid  from  one  to  three 
weeks  after  the  trees  blossom.  In 
five  to  ten  days  these  eggs  hatch 
into  larvse  about  one-sixteenth  inch 
in  length.  The  larvse,  or  worms, 
feed  for  a  time  on  the  leaves,  but 
soon  crawl  to  an  apple,  pear,  or  quince  and  enter  it  through 
the  calyx  end,  in  a  short  time  eating  their  way  to  the  core. 
They  consume  a  portion  of  the  flesh  and  the  seeds  of  the  fruit 
and  become  full  grown  in  about  three  or  four  weeks,  when  they 
eat  their  way  out  through  the  side  of  the  apple.  Fig.  Ill 
shows  the  larvae  in  an  apple.  The  track  from  the  calyx  end 
into  the  core  and  out  to  the  side  can  be  seen.  Fig.  112  is  an 
exterior  view  of  young  apples  infested  with  the  first  brood 
of  the  moth.  Notice  the  frass,  or  sawdust-like  material,  at  the 
end  of  the  apples. 


Fig.  111. 


-  Codlin-moth  larvae 
in  apple. 


Fruit-growing 


265 


When  full-grown  the  insects  are  about  three-fourths  inch  in 
length  and  are  white  or  sometimes  pinkish  in  color.  As  soon  as 
the  worms  emerge,  they  find  a  convenient  place,  spin  a  cocoon, 
and  go  into  the  pupa  state.  In  about  four  weeks  they  emerge 
from  the  cocoon  and  go  into  the  mature  moth  stage.  The 
females  then  lay  eggs  and  the  larvae  from  these  eggs  enter  the 
fruit  from  the  sides ;  they  are  known  as  the  second  brood  and 
are  the  ones  that  hibernate  and  emerge  in  the  spring  to  damage 
the  young  fruit. 

The  insects  are  combated  by  spraying  poison  (usually  ar- 
senic) on  the  trees  and  by  destroying  the  hibernating  larvae. 
All  loose  bark  should  be  scraped  from  the  trees  and  burned,  as 
this  will  destroy 
any  larvae  on  the 
under  side  of  the 
bark.  As  most  of 
the  larvae  of  the 
first  brood  enter 
the  fruit  by  eating 
through  the  blos- 
som end,  an  effec- 
tive way  to  kill  them 
is  to  have  a  poison 
ready  for  them  to 
eat.  As  the  calyx 
closes     about     ten 

days  after  the  blossoms  fall,  it  is  necessary  to  spraj^  while  this 
calyx  is  open  in  order  to  get  the  poison  into  the  blossom  end  of 
the  fruit.  The  usual  time  to  spray  is  after  about  two- thirds 
of  the  blossoms  have  fallen.  Later  sprayings  are  made  to  kill, 
if  possible,  the  insects  of  the  second  brood  and  any  of  the  first 
brood  that  may  have  escaped  the  first  spray. 

Apple-tree  tent-caterpillar.  —  Another  insect  that  is  often 
troublesome  on  fruit-trees,  especially  apple  trees,  is  the  apple- 
tree  tent-caterpillar.     The  silken  tent  containing  the  worms 


Fig. 


.12.  —  Young  apples  that  have  been  infested 
with  the  first  brood  of  codhn-moth. 


266 


Effective  Farming 


(Fig.  113)  is  a  familiar  sight.  The  female  lays  eggs  in  clusters 
about  five  or  six  weeks  after  the  trees  have  blossomed.  The 
eggs  are  placed  in  brownish  bunches  around  a  twig  and  they 
hatch  the  next  spring  about  the  time  the  trees  are  leaving  out. 
The  larvae  start  to  eat  at  once  and  work  in  groups,  spinning 
the  silken  web  in  which  they  stay  during  the  night.  In  the 
day  time,  especially  if  the  sun  is  shining,  they  crawl  out  and 
eat  the  foliage.     Often  a  colony  will  strip  the  foliage  from  a 

large  area.  The  insect 
is  combated  by  spray- 
ing the  trees  with  a 
poison  before  they 
blossom.  The  worms 
eating  the  poisoned 
leaves  will  be  killed. 
It  is  also  a  good  plan 
to  burn  the  webs  by 
means  of  a  torch.  To 
be  effective,  this  should 
be  done  on  a  cloudy 
day,  as  the  worms  are 
then  likely  to  be  in  the 
webs. 

Plant-lice.  —  Sev- 
eral kinds  of  plant- 
lice  attack  fruit- 
trees.  Among  the 
most  troublesome  are  the  woolly  apple  aphis,  the  green  apple 
aphis,  the  black  cherry  aphis,  the  black  peach  aphis,  and  the 
russet  plum  aphis.  Methods  of  combating  these  lice  are  by 
spraying  with  a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap,  made  up  in  the 
proportion  of  a  pound  of  soap  to  six  gallons  of  water,  a  tobacco 
solution  made  up  according  to  directions  on  the  package,  and 
kerosene  emulsion  stock  solution  diluted  one  to  seventeen. 
The  insects  usually  feed  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  and 


Fig.  113.  —  Nest  and  larvae  of  apple-tree  tent- 
caterpillar  in  crotch  of  wild  cherry  tree. 


Fruit-growing 


267 


cause  the  leaves  to  curl ;  hence,  to  be  effective,  spraying  should 
be  done  before  the  leaves  have  curled. 

Leaf  blister-mite.  —  Of  recent  years  much  damage  has  been 
done  to  apple  trees  by  the  leaf  bhster-mite.  This  is  a  very 
small  insect  that  passes  the  winter  in  the  buds  and  early  in  the 
spring  emerges  and  feeds  on  the  tender  foliage  when  the  buds 
open.  The  insects  are  combated  by  spraying  with  lime  sulfur 
solution  during  the  dormant  season. 

Bud-moth.  —  In  the  larvae  stage  the  bud-moth  is  a  dirty- 
white  caterpillar  about  one-fourth  inch  long  that  sometimes 
attacks  apple  foliage.  The 
larvae  spin  a  web  around  the 
leaves  just  as  they  are  un- 
folding and  eat  the  foUage. 
They  are  combated  by  the 
lime  sulfur  spray. 

Plum  curculio.  —  The  in- 
sect known  as  the  plum 
curculio  (Fig.  114)  attacks 
plums,  apples,  pears,  cherries, 
and  peaches.  Both  sexes 
puncture  the  young  fruit  with 
their  proboscides  for  the  pur- 
pose of  feeding  on  the  pulp 

and  the  female  lays  eggs  in  the  punctures.  About  the  puncture 
she  cuts  a  crescent-shaped  hole  and  this  characteristic  mark  on 
the  fruit  can  readily  be  distinguished.  The  fruits  in  which  the 
eggs  have  been  laid  usually  drop  by  the  time  they  are  half- 
developed,  but  some  remain  until  they  are  ripe.  When  the 
trees  are  small,  the  young  insects  can  be  jarred  from  the  tree. 
A  sheet  or  a  device  known  as  the  curculio-catcher  is  placed 
underneath  the  tree  to  catch  the  insects,  after  which  they  are 
destroyed.  When  the  trees  become  large  this  treatment  is  not 
effective.  The  usual  sprayings  given  to  orchards  for  other  in- 
sects tend  to  keep  the  curculio  in  check. 


Fig.  114. 


—  Adult  curculios  on  a  young 
peach  (enlarged). 


268 


Effective  Farming 


Borers.  —  Fruit-trees  are  attacked  by  borers  (Fig.  115) 
that  burrow  underneath  the  bark  of  the  tree  near  the  base 
and  in  many  instances  girdle  the  tree.     The  only  practical 


m^ 


way  of  combating  these  borers  is  to  dig 
them  out  or  kill  them  by  running  a  wire 
through  them  in  the  burrow.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  peach-tree  borer  and  methods 
of  handling  it  will  show  how  borers  in  general 
are  combated.  The  female  of  the  peach- 
tree  borer  lays  eggs  on  the  bark  of  the  tree 
near  the  ground  during  the  summer.  These 
eggs  hatch  in  a  short  time  and  the  larvae 
enter  the  bark  of  the  tree.  If  not  removed 
the  borers  will  soon  girdle  the  tree.  An 
exudation  of  gum  about  the  base  of  a  peach 
tree  usually  indicates  the  presence  of  a  borer 
The  soil  should  be  dug  away 
from  the  trunk  and  when  burrows  are  found 
they  should  be  opened  with  a  knife,  the  insects  found  and  de- 
stroyed ;  or  a  stiff  wire  may  be  pushed  into  the  burrow  and 
when  the  borer  is  reached,  it  should  be  killed  by  pushing  the 


Fig.  115.  — The  peach 
borer,     a,  enlarged ; 

b,  at  work  on  root    in  the  tree. 

of  tree. 


Fruit-growing  269 

wire  through  its  body.  The  work  of  examining  trees  for  borers 
is  usually  performed  in  May  and  some  growers  make  an  ex- 
amination in  the  fall,  also. 

Apple-scab.  —  One  of  the  most  widely  distributed  diseases 
of  the  apple  is  the  apple-scab.  Dark,  scabby  spots  are  found 
on  the  foliage  and  fruit  of  the  tree.  Often  the  infested  area 
will  stop  the  growth  of  the  fruit  and  cause  it  to  assume  a  dis- 
torted shape.  Fortunately  the  disease  is  easily  controlled  by 
spraying  with  boiled  lime  sulfur  solution  or  bordeaux  mixture. 
Most  orchardists  prefer  the  former,  however,  for  spray  injury 
to  the  fruit  sometimes  results  from  the  use  of  bordeaux  mixture. 

Bitter-rot.  —  One  of  the  most  destructive  diseases  of  the  apple 
is  bitter-rot.  Early  in  its  growth  it  shows  as  small  brown 
spots  just  beneath  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Later  these  spots 
enlarge  and  the  fruit  near  the  rotton  spot  is  usually  bitter. 
As  the  rot  grows,  the  surface  of  the  diseased  portion  becomes 
wrinkled.  As  a  rule,  the  diseased  fruits  fall  from  the  tree, 
but  sometimes  they  remain,  becoming  later  dried,  wrinkled, 
and  shriveled,  in  which  form  they  are  called  mummies.  The 
disease  also  attacks  the  buds  and  branches,  causing  rough, 
cankered  areas  to  form  on  the  bark.  To  combat  bitter-rot, 
all  diseased  fruit  and  branches  should  be  burned  and  the  trees 
sprayed  about  six  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall  with  4-6-50 
bordeaux  mixture  and  again  in  two  or  three  weeks,  if  the  disease 
is  serious.  Often  it  will  pay  to  spray  twice  more  at  about 
three  weeks'  intervals.  Lime  sulfur  does  not  seem  to  be  an 
effective  fungicide  for  this  disease. 

Brown-rot.  —  The  disease  known  as  brown-rot  attacks 
peaches,  plums,  and  cherries.  Rot  starts  at  a  spot  on  the 
fruit  and  spreads  rapidly.  Often  the  fruit  rots  when  it  is  small 
and  green ;  in  other  cases,  at  ripening  time.  Many  of  the 
fruits  that  decay  shrivel  and  cling  to  the  trees  all  winter.  These 
are  shown  in  Fig.  116.  Since  these  mummies  contain  spores 
they  should  always  be  picked  from  the  trees  or  the  ground 
and  be  destroyed.     Until  recently  no  effective  fungicides  were 


270 


Effective  Farming 


known  that  could  be  sprayed  on  the  trees  while  they  were  in 
leaf.  Now,  either  self-boiled  lime  sulfur  or  a  very  weak  solu- 
tion of  boiled  lime  sulfur  is  used  for  the  purpose.  If  the  disease 
is  serious,  several  sprayings  are  made  each  year.  Weather 
conditions  have  much  to  do  with  the  spread  of  brown-rot; 
if  bright,  dry  weather  prevails  at  the  time  the  fruit  is  ripening, 
the  disease  is  not  Ukely  to  be  serious,  but  if  hot,  moist  weather 
occurs,  the  spores  grow  very  rapidly  and  often  with  such  weather 

at  ripening  time, 
the  crop  may  be 
entirely  destroyed, 
unless  the  growth 
of  the  rot  is  pre- 
vented by  timely 
sprayings. 

A]iple-blotch. — A 
disease  that  some- 
what resembles  ap- 
ple-scab is  apple- 
blotch.  On  infested 
fruit  small,  light- 
brown,  star-shaped 
blotches  appear  and 
spread  rapidly,  be- 
coming darker  in 
color  and  often  join- 
ing together  to  form  large  blotches  that  may  cover  more  than 
half  the  apple.  Often  the  surface  of  the  apple  cracks.  On 
the  leaves  the  blotches  are  found  as  small,  hght-brown  spots, 
smaller  than  those  of  the  scale.  On  the  twigs  cracks  in  the 
bark  are  seen.  The  spores  live  through  the  winter  on  the 
twigs.  The  remedy  is  to  spray  with  bordeaux  mixture  three 
or  four  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall.  If  the  disease  is  very 
bad,  it  is  advisable  to  make  two  or  three  more  sprayings  at 
intervals  of  three  weeks. 


Fig.   116.  —  Mummies  of  brown-rot  of  peach. 


Fruit-growing        '  271 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  are  fruit  plants  classified  by  Bailey? 

2.  Why  should  land  that  is  to  be  planted  to  fruit-trees  be  well 
drained  ? 

3.  What  is  air  drainage  and  why  is  it  an  important  factor  in  fruit- 
growing ? 

4.  Define  pruning  and  tell  why  we  prune  trees. 

5.  Why  should  stubs  of  limbs  not  be  left  on  a  tree  ?  Tell  how  to 
remove  a  limb  without  splitting  the  bark  of  the  parent  limb. 

6.  What  kind  of  insecticide  is  used  to  kill  insects  with  biting 
mouths?    With  sucking  mouths? 

7.  Define  fungicide  and  name  the  chief  kinds  used  by  fruit-growers. 

8.  Why  should  fruit-trees  be  planted  not  too  close  together? 

9.  Tell  how  to  plant  a  nursery  tree. 

10.  Why  must  fruit  be  handled  carefully  when  harvested? 

11.  Give  the  life  history  of  the  San  Jose  scale  and  tell  how  to  combat 
this  pest. 

12.  How  may  the  number  of  wormy  apples  in  an  orchard  be  re- 
duced ? 

13.  Describe  the  method  /)f  combating  the  peach-tree  borer. 

14.  Name  two  diseases  of  the  apple  and  tell  how  they  are  kept  in 
control  in  an  orchard. 

15.  What  spray  preparation  is  used  for  brown-rot  ? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Boiled  lime  sulfur  solution.  —  One  of  the  best  materials  now 
recognized  for  spraying  deciduous  trees  infested  with  scale  insects  is 
boiled  lime  sulfur  solution.  It  is  also  useful  in  controlling  several  other 
pests.  The  solution  is  cheap  and  not  injurious  to  the  trees  or  shrubs 
to  which  it  is  applied,  and  in  addition  to  being  an  insecticide,  it  acts 
as  a  fungicide  in  controlling  such  diseases  as  scab,  leaf-spot,  and  allied 
fungous  troubles. 

The  term  boiled  lime  sulfur  solution  is  applied  to  any  solution  of 
lime  and  sulfur  that  has  been  produced  by  boiling  the  ingredients 
together  over  the  fire  or  by  the  use  of  steam.  The  boiling  causes  the 
lime  and  sulfur  to  form  a  chemical  combination  consisting  usually  of 
several  calcium  sulfides.  The  particular  sulfides  formed  depend  on 
the  formula  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  solution.  When  a  large 
proportion  of  lime  is  used,  the  lower  calcium  sulfides  result ;  when  the 
proportion  of  lime   is   small,   the  higher  sulfides   are  formed.     The 


272  Effective  Farming 

lower  sulfides  crystallize  when  cold  and,  therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  use 
a  large  proportion  of  lime,  in  fact,  an  excess. 

What  is  known  as  concentrated  lime  sulfur  solution  is  the  kind  of 
boiled  solution  now  most  generally  used  by  orchardists.  This  can 
be  stored  without  crystallizing  and  used  when  required.  The  con- 
centrated solution  can  be  purchased  from  dealers  or  it  can  be  made  on 
the  farm.  When  purchased  it  is  known  as  commercial  lime  sulfur 
solution. 

The  formula  most  used  at  the  present  time  in  making  the  concen- 
trated solution  is  one  pound  of  quicklime  and  two  pounds  of  sulfur  to 
each  gallon  of  water.  These  proportions  are  likely  to  form  the  higher 
calcium  sulfides.  The  ingredients  are  boiled  until  the  sulfur  is  dis- 
solved. Usually  this  requires  an  hour  or  a  little  less.  A  good  rule  to 
follow  is  to  boil  for  fifty  minutes,  then  stir  the  material  to  see  if  the 
sulfur  is  dissolved.  The  material  should  not  be  boiled  more  than  an 
hour  or  certain  insoluble  compounds  are  likely  to  be  formed. 

Two  exercises  are  outlined  here  —  one  the  making  of  the  solution  in 
the  school  laboratory  and  the  other  the  making  of  it  out  of  doors. 
For  the  laboratory  exercise  will  be  needed  one  pound  of  quicklime, 
two  pounds  of  powdered  sulfur,  one  gallon  of  water,  a  vessel  in  which 
to  boil  the  ingredients  (about  two-gallon  capacity),  a  cover  for  the 
vessel,  a  sieve  through  which  to  pass  the  sulfur,  and  a  paddle  or  a  glass 
rod  for  stirring  the  mixture.  For  the  out-door  exercise  the  equipment 
required  is  fifty  pounds  of  quicklime,  one  hundred  pounds  of  sulfur, 
galvanized  washtub,  boards  for  cover  to  the  tub,  two  iron  rods  about 
five  feet  long  and  of  sufficient  strength  when  suspended  horizontally 
to  support  the  tub  and  contents,  a  hoe  or  paddle  for  stirring  the  mix- 
ture, a  sieve,  and  several  flat  stones. 

Any  good  grade  of  fresh  quicklime  can  be  used.  Air-slaked  or 
water-slaked  lime  can  be  used,  but  twice  the  quantity  of  air-slaked 
and  three  times  the  quantity  of  water-slaked  are  required.  Commer- 
cial, or  powdered,  sulfur  is  satisfactory  for  making  the  spray. 

For  the  laboratory  exercise  pour  the  water  into  the  vessel,  place  over 
the  heat,  drop  in  the  lime,  and  rub  tlie  sulfur  through  the  sieve  and 
into  the  vessel.  Stir  the  materials  to  make  the  water  cover  the  sulfur. 
As  the  water  heats  and  the  lime  slakes,  the  lime  and  sulfur  will  start 
to  unite.  When  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  has  reached  the  boil- 
ing point,  notice  the  time  and  continue  the  boiling  for  fifty  minutes. 
Keep  the  vessel  closed ;  higher  temperature  will  be  gained  and  higher 
sulfides  will  result.  After  the  ingredients  have  boiled  for  fifty  minutes, 
stir  the  material  and  see  if  any  uneombined  material  is  present.  If 
sulfur  is  seen  boil  for  ten  minutes  longer.     When  the  boiling  is  complete 


Fruit-growing 


273 


< 


remove  the  vessel  from  the  heat  and  allow  any  sediment  to  settle  to  the 
bottom.  When  the  liquid  is  cool  dip  and  strain  off  the  top,  or  red  por- 
tion, and  save  for  future  use. 

For  the  out-door  exercise  build  up  two  piles  of  stones  about  a  foot 
high  and  four  feet  apart,  lay  the  two  iron  rods  from  one  pile  to  the 
other,  spacing  the  rods  to  form  a  sup- 
port for  the  tub.  Place  the  tub  on 
the  rods  and  pour  the  water  into  it, 
build  a  fire,  and  proceed  with  the 
boiling  as  directed  for  the  laboratory 
exercises. 

With  two  washtubs  used  for  boiling 
the  solution  it  is  possible  to  make 
enough  concentrate  in  a  day  to  keep 
busy  a  crew  with  a  hand  sprayer 
fitted  with  two  leads  of  hose.  Five 
boys  could  make  the  spray  and  do 
the  work  of  spraying  an  orchard  ;  two 
boys  to  make  the  lime  sulfur  solu- 
tion, one  boy  to  work  the  hand  pump  ; 
two  boys  to  hold  the  two  leads  of 
hose. 

2,  Testing  lime  sulfur  solution.  — 
The  density,  or  strength,  of  lime 
sulfur  solution  is  tested  by  means  of 
an  hydrometer,  an  instrument  made 
to  measure  the  density  of  liquids. 
Two  kinds  of  hydrometers  are  in  use 
—  one  marked  to  read  according  to 
the  Baume  scale  and  the  other  to 
read  specific  gravity  direct.  The 
specific-gravity  type  is  more  con- 
venient for  the  orchardist,  although 
by  means  of  a  table,  Baume  readings 
can  be  reduced  readily  to  specific- 
gravity  readings.  Instruments  are 
made,  also,  on  which  both  scales  are 
marked.  Fig.  117  shows  at  a  cylinder  for  liquid  to  be  tested,  at  h  spe- 
cific-gravity hydrometer,  and  at  c  Baume  hydrometer.  Hydrometers 
can  be  purchased  from  dealers  in  laboratory  supplies. 

Use  some  of  the  solution  made  in  the  previous  exercise ;   also  secure 
a  quantity  from  an  orchardist  or  from  a  dealer.    Have  the  liquid  60°  F. 


Fig.  117.  —  Apparatus  for  determin- 
ing specific  gravity  of  lime  sulfur 
solution,  a,  Cylinder  for  liquid 
to  be  tested  ;  h,  specific-gravity  hy- 
drometer ;  c,  Baume  hydrometer. 


274  •         Effective  Farming 

when  making  the  test.  Stir,  take  out  a  test  jar  nearly  full,  and  place 
the  hydrometer  in  the  liquid.  Next  determine  the  ratio  of  dilution  and 
dilute  some  of  the  material  to  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03.  To  determine 
the  ratio  of  dilution,  divide  the  decimal  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  con- 
centrate by  the  decimal  desired  for  the  dilute  material.  Suppose  the 
concentrated  solution  tested  1.30  and  it  is  desired  to  dilute  to  1.03. 
Dividing  .30  by  .03  gives  10  as  the  ratio  of  dilution.  The  concentrate, 
then,  contains  10  times  the  quantity  of  combined  sulfides  that  is  desired 
in  an  equal  volume  of  dilute  solutions.  Thus,  1  volume  of  the  con- 
centrate must  be  added  to  9  volumes  of  water  to  get  10  volumes  of  the 
desired  strength.  Suppose  the  concentrate  tested  1.24.  Dividing 
.24  by  .03  the  ratio  is  1  to  8  and  7  volumes  of  water  should  be  added  to 
1  volume  of  concentrate  to  make  the  dilute  solution. 

3.  Kerosene  emulsion.  —  An  emulsion  made  of  kerosene,  soap,  and 
^water  is  a  standard  remedy  for  plant-lice.  To  make  a  stock  solution, 
combine  two  gallons  of  kerosene,  one-half  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  with 
one  gallon  of  water  as  follows :  Boil  the  water  and  dissolve  the  soap  in 
it  and  while  still  boiling  hot  pour  the  soapy  solution  into  the  kerosene 
(have  the  kerosene  away  from  the  fire).  Next,  churn  the  mixture  vio- 
lently for  about  five  minutes  by  means  of  a  spray-pump  with  a  direct- 
discharge  nozzle  by  throwing  a  stream  of  the  liquid  back  into  itself, 
or  if  no  such  pump  is  available,  stir  the  material  vigorously.  At  the  end 
of  the  time  the  mixture  should  be  of  the  consistency  of  cream.  This 
stock  solution  is  diluted  for  use  as  needed.  The  usual  dilutions  are 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  parts  of  water  to  one  of  the  solution. 

4.  San  Jose  scale.  —  Write  to  the  entomologist  of  the  experiment 
station  of  your  state  and  ask  whether  or  not  the  San  Jose  scale  is  found 
in  your  vicinity.  If  so  make  a  special  trip  to  near-by  orchards  and 
try  to  find  infested  branches.  Carry  some  of  them  to  the  school  for 
further  study.  There  is  no  danger  of  spreading  the  pest  in  this  way, 
because  when  the  branch  dies,  the  scale  dies  also. 

Draw  a  section  of  a  twig  as  it  appears  under  the  magnifying  glass. 
Compare  the  infested  twigs  with  Fig.  110. 

5.  The  codlin-moth.  —  Secure  some  apples  that  have  been  made 
wormy  by  insects  of  the  first  brood  of  codlin-moths.  Cut  them  through 
the  exit  hole  and  the  core  as  shown  in  Fig.  111.  See  if  you  can  find 
apples  made  wormy  by  the  larvas  of  the  second  brood  and  determine 
the  route  taken  by  the  worms. 

During  a  field  trip  search  for  cocoons  of  the  codlin-moth.  They 
may  often  be  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  bark  of  apple  trees. 
Compare  the  number  of  windfalls  under  sprayed  and  unsprayed  apple 
trees. 


Fruit-growing  275 

6.  The  peach-tree  borer,  —  During  the  month  of  May  visit  a  near- 
by peach  orchard  and  look  for  borers.  Dig  the  earth  away  from  the 
base  of  the  tree  to  a  depth  of  six  to  eight  inches  and,  whenever  a  borer 
is  found,  either  cut  into  the  burrow  with  the  knife,  find  the  borer,  and 
kill  it,  or  push  the  piece  of  wire  through  the  burrow  until  it  strikes  the 
borer  and  kills  it.  When  using  the  knife  destroy  as  little  bark  as 
possible.  Make  the  cut  up  and  down,  not  around  the  tree,  to  avoid 
girdling  it.  When  finished  with  the  work  place  the  soil  back  about  the 
tree  to  prevent  the  roots  from  drying.  Visit  the  orchard  again  in 
September  or  October  and  kill  what  borers  you  find. 

7.  Decay  in  fruit.  —  Bruise  two  apples  by  striking  them  on  the  top 
of  a  table.  Do  not  break  the  skin.  Bruise  two  others  by  striking  them 
against  a  sharp  corner  of  the  table.  Let  the  skin  be  broken  slightly. 
Keep  the  other  two  as  a  check.  Place  all  the  apples  where  they  will  be 
undisturbed  and  watch  the  results.  Keep  a  record  of  the  length  of 
time  that  occurs  before  each  shows  decay. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  348- 

357.     Also  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture  :    Articles  on  each 

fruit  class.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  The  Principles  of  F ruit-Gr owing ;  revised  edition.     The 

Macmillan  Co. 
Green,  Samuel  B.,  Popular  Fruit  Farming.     Webb  Pubhshing  Co. 
Thorpe,  F.  N.,  An  American  Fruit  Farm.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
Budd,  J.  L.,   and   Hansen,  N.   E.,   American   Horticultural   Manual. 

Wiley  and  Sons. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  127,  Important  Insecticides. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  154,  Home  Fruit  Garden. 
Farmers' Bulletin  181,  PrMningr. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  643,  Blackberry  Culture. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  662,  The  Apple-tree  Tent  Caterpillar. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  650,  The  San  Jos6  Scale  and  Its  Control. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  492,  Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies  of  the  Apple. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  113,  The  Apple  and  How  To  Grow  It. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  491,  Profitable  Management  of  Small  Apple  Orchard 

on  General  Farm. 
Farmers'  Bulletins  631,  632,  and  633,  Growing  Peaches. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  482,  The  Pear  and  How  To  Grow  It. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  118,  Grape  Growing  in  the  South. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  471,  Grape  Propagation,  Pruning,  and  Training. 


276  Effective  Farming 

Farmers'   Bulletin   156,    Home    Vineyard    with  Special    Reference  to 

Northern  Conditions. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  664,  Strawberry  Growing  in  the  South. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  675,  Round-head  Apple-tree  Borer. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  709,  Muscadine  Grapes. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  722,  Leaf  Blister  Mite. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  723,  Oyster-shell  Scale  and  the  Scurfy  Scale. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  727,  Growing  Fruit  for  Home  Use  in  the  Great  Plain 

Area. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  728,  Dewberry  Culture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  776,  Growing  Cherries  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  794,  Citrus  Fruit  Improvement. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  804,  Aphids  Injurious  to  Orchard  Fruits,  Currants, 

Gooseberry,  and  Grapes. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

VEGETABLE-GROWING 

Market-gardening  and  truck-farming. 
Soils  for  vegetables. 
Kinds  of  vegetable  crops. 
The  farm-garden. 

Soils  for  the  farm-garden. 

Range  of  crops. 

Enriching  the  soil. 

Tools  for  farm-gardening. 
Planting- table  for  vegetables. 

Every  home  uses  vegetables.  These  vegetables  are  grown 
by  some  person,  somewhere.  To  grow  them  requires  skill,  a 
well  equipped  establishment,  the  proper  soil  and  location, 
knowledge  of  varieties,  ability  to  control  insects  and  diseases, 
understanding  of  the  markets  and  what  the  people  want.  In 
former  time,  the  vegetables  were  grown  at  home.  Now  many 
or  most  of  them,  are  produced  by  specialists,  who  make  the 
growing  of  them  a  business.  Some  of  them  are  raised  in  fields 
under  glass.  The  markets  are  supplied  by  trutk-farmers  and 
market-gardeners,  as  explained  in  the  third  paragraph ;  yet 
it  is  as  important  as  ever  that  every  person  having  land  grow 
as  many  of  his  own  vegetables  as  possible. 

A  wholesale  produce  market,  about  two  or  three  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  is  a  remarkable  sight.  There  are  products  in 
great  variety  and  immense  quantities ;  gardeners  with  their 
loads ;  commission  men  displaying  the  produce ;  buyers  eager 
for  the  best  bargains ;  activity  everywhere.  Usually  by  five 
o'clock  the  market  is  empty,  the  produce  gone  to  the  shops 
where  it  will  be  sold  to  families ;   and  the  ordinary  early  riser 

277 


278  '  Effective  Farming 

passing  that  way  sees  little  but  empty  rooms  and  an  unin- 
teresting establishment.  One  half  does  not  know  how  the 
other  half  lives. 

150.  Market-gardening  and  truck-farming.  —  These  terms 
require  some  explanation.  In  market-gardening  the  growing 
of  vegetables  is  conducted  near  the  market  where  they  are  to 
be  sold.  The  gardens  are  near  cities  on  high-priced  land  and 
the  produce  is  hauled  to  market  by  team  or  motor  truck. 
Under  these  conditions  the  acre  returns  must  be  large  in  order 
to  pay  interest  on  the  value  of  the  land  and  other  capital 
invested.  In  truck-farming  the  vegetables  are  grown  on 
farms  somewhat  remote  from  the  market  and  the  produce 
is  shipped  by  train  or  boat.  The  land  is  usually  low  in  value 
compared  with  market-gardens  and  is  chosen  because  of  its 
adaptability  to  vegetable-growing.  Market-gardening  and 
truck-farming  often  overlap.  For  example,  a  market-gardener 
may  at  times  find  it  more  profitable  to  ship  his  produce  to  a 
distant  market  than  to  sell  it  near  home,  or  a  truck-farmer 
may  find  that  at  times  he  can  develop  a  home  market  for  at 
least  a  portion  of  his  produce. 

151.  Soils  for  vegetables.  —  The  best  soils  for  most  vege- 
table crops  are  sandy  or  sandy  loams.  Vegetables  usually  do 
well  on  such  soils,  if  the  ground  is  properly  fertilized  and  other- 
wise cared  for.  The  soils  are  easy  to  work  and  seldom  become 
sticky ;  they  can  be  worked  soon  after  a  rain ;  and  they  are 
warm.  All  of  these  points  are  important.  Vegetable-growing 
requires  that  the  soil  be  worked  frequently.  Sticky  soils  are 
to  be  avoided,  as  they  are  not  only  difficult  to  get  into  good 
tilth,  but  the  particles  will  adhere  to  many  of  the  vegetables 
and  may  lessen  their  value.  To  be  able  to  work  a  soil  soon 
after  a  rain  is  a  decided  advantage  to  a  gardener.  A  warm 
soil  is  of  prime  importance  in  the  production  of  vegetables. 
If  sufficiently  watered  and  fertilized,  such  a  soil  will  produce 
vegetables  quickly,  which  tends  to  make  them  succulent  and 
of  better  quality  than  if  they  are  a  long  time  developing.     A 


Vegetable-growing  279 

warm  soil  also  means  early  vegetables,  the  kind  which  bring 
high  prices  on  the  market. 

Good  drainage  is  necessary.  The  water-table  should  be  at 
least  a  foot  and  a  half  below  the  surface.  Often  the  draining 
of  a  piece  of  light  loam  will  make  it  very  desirable  for  a  vege- 
table-garden. 

152.  Kinds  of  vegetable  crops.  —  Many  sorts  of  vegetables 
are  grown.  The  number  is  greater  than  that  of  general  farm 
crops.  Some  vegetables  are  grown  for  underground  parts, 
others  for  the  foliage  parts,  and  still  others  for  the  seed  parts. 
A  classification  of  vegetables  according  to  the  parts  used  for 
food  adapted  from  Bailey  is  given  below : 

Annual  Vegetable  Crops 

Crops  grown  for  underground  parts : 

Root  crops.  —  Beet,  carrot,  celeriac,  parsnip,  radish,  salsify, 
sweet  potato,  turnip,  rutabaga. 

Tuber  crop.  —  Irish  potato. 

Bulb  crops.  —  Onion,  leek,  garUc,  shallot,  chive. 

Crops  grown  for  foliage  parts : 

Cole  crops.  —  Kale,  or  borecole,  Brussels  sprouts,  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  broccoli,  kohlrabi,  coUard. 

Pot-herb  crops  (greens) .  —  Spinach,  chard,  beet,  dandelion, 
purslane,  mustard,  sea  kale,  turnip  (for  greens),  Swiss  chard, 
rape. 

Salad  crops.  —  Lettuce,  endive,  celery,  parsley,  cress,  upland 
or  winter  cress,  watercress,  corn-salad. 

Crops  grown  for  fruit  or  seed  parts : 

Pulse  crops.  —  Bean,  pea. 

Solanaceous  crops.  —  Tomato,  eggplant,  pepper,  husk  tomato. 

Vine  crops.  —  Cucumber,  watermelon,  muskmelon,  gherkin, 
pumpkin,  squash. 

The  chief  perennial  vegetables  grown  are  asparagus,  rhubarb, 
and  horse-radish.  The  first  two  are  used  for  the  fohage  and 
the  last  for  the  roots. 


280  Effective  Farming 

153.  The  farm-garden.  —  The  home-garden  of  the  farm  is 
too  often  badly  neglected.  This  is  unfortunate,  because  the 
garden  can  and  should  be  made  an  important  part  of  the  farm. 
One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  having  a  good  garden  is  that  it 
provides  healthful  food  for  the  family.  This  should  be  a 
matter  of  much  careful  consideration.  A  dairyman  feeds 
beets  to  his  stock  primarily  for  the  beneficial  effect  on  their 
digestive  system.  In  the  same  way  one  value  of  wholesome 
vegetables  consists  in  helping  to  keep  the  body  in  good  physi- 
cal condition.  Good  health  to  the  farmer  is  not  only  a  matter 
of  comfort ;  it  is  important  from  the  efficiency  standpoint. 

Dwellers  in  the  city  can  secure  fresh  vegetables  every  day, 
because  they  are  in  the  markets,  but  the  farmer  unless  he 
maintains  a  good  garden  cannot  have  them.  One  usually 
thinks  of  the  farm  as  a  place  where  vegetables  are  always 
plentiful,  but  there  is  no  place  that  suffers  more  from  dearths 
and  over-supplies  of  vegetables  than  the  farm.  This  is  be- 
cause the  marketable  supply  goes  to  the  city  and  there  is 
none  left  for  the  farmer,  unless  he  plans  his  home-garden  wisely. 

Aside  from  the  matter  of  health,  a  farm-garden  is  a  source 
of  economy.  It  will  pay  good  returns  for  the  time  and  money 
spent  on  it.  If  the  products  that  can  be  grown  on  a  farm- 
garden  were  purchased,  they  would  amount  to  a  considerable 
sum  each  year. 

Soils  for  the  farm-garden.  —  As  a  general  rule,  if  a  sandy  or 
a  sandy  loam  soil  is  available,  it  should  be  chosen  for  the  home- 
garden.  An  exception  might  occur  in  regions  of  scant  rainfall. 
Such  soils  under  this  condition  might  dry  out  so  quickly  that 
they  would  not  be  suitable  for  the  garden,  in  which  case  a  soil 
more  retentive  of  moisture  should  be  used.  However,  even 
when  the  rainfall  is  scant,  a  sandy  or  loamy  soil  might  be  used 
advantageously  for  early  spring  crops  and  another  garden  of 
heavier  soil  be  used  for  later  plantings. 

Range  of  crops.  —  In  planning  the  home-garden,  a  wider 
range  of  vegetables  than  is  usually  planted  should  be  provided. 


Vegetable-growing  281 

Many  vegetables  are  often  better  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climatic  condition  of  other  regions  than  the  ones  in  which 
they  are  usually  grown. 

Hardy  vegetables  like  onions,  peas,  beets,  lettuce,  and 
radishes  should  be  planted  early  in  order  that  fresh  vegetables 
may  be  obtained  early  in  the  year.  These  hardy  crops  will 
stand  considerable  cold  and,  even  if  some  are  killed  by  frost, 
it  is  comparatively  inexpensive  to  replant  the  seeds.  Half- 
hardy  and  tender  crops  as  cucumbers,  melons,  and  the  like, 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  ground  is  fairly  warm. 

Some  vegetables  remain  in  good  condition  for  table  use  only 
a  short  time  after  coming  to  maturity,  while  others  continue 
bearing  over  a  relatively  long  season.  Peas,  beans,  radishes, 
lettuce,  and  sweet  corn  are  examples  of  the  former,  and  to- 
matoes, cucumbers,  and  melons  of  the  latter.  In  the  case 
of  the  crops  that  last  only  a  short  period,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
succession  of  plantings.  To  plant  peas  and  beans,  for  ex- 
ample, once  a  week  for  four  weeks  will  very  much  extend  the 
season  during  which  this  vegetable  is  available  for  use.  Sweet 
corn  under  New  Jersey  conditions  may  be  planted  from  April 
15  to  July  15,  and  if  several  plantings  were  made  during  this 
time,  farmers  could  have  fresh  sweet  corn  for  a  long  time 
during  the  summer  and  fall.  Those  vegetables  that  remain 
in  good  condition  for  a  considerable  period  do  not  need  to 
be  planted  in  succession.  Another  way  to  extend  the  season 
for  vegetables  is  to  plant  in  the  late  summer  those  spring- 
grown  crops  that  will  make  a  growth  in  the  fall.  Peas,  string 
beans,  lettuce,  carrots,  and  beets  are  examples.  None  of  these 
crops  will  grow,  however,  if  planted  in  midsummer.  In  the 
South  the  fall  garden  can  be  made  very  important  and  by 
the  use  of  coldframes  the  season  for  fresh  vegetables  can  be 
extended  well  into  the  winter. 

Certain  perennial  crops  should  always  be  found  in  the  farm- 
garden.  These  should  include  bush-fruits  and  strawberries 
as  well  as  asparagus,  rhubarb,  and  horse-radish.     They  should 


282  Effective  Farming 

be  grouped  along  one  side  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  tillage 
operations  of  the  portion  to  be  devoted  to  annuals. 

Enriching  the  soil.  —  The  character  of  the  growth  of  vege- 
tables is  very  different  from  that  of  general  farm  crops.  Vege- 
tables do  not  have  elaborate  root-systems,  their  period  of 
growth  is  short,  and  to  be  of  good  quality  they  must  make  a 
rapid  growth.  Thus  it  is  an  advantage  to  fertilize  the  garden 
heavily,  more  so  than  for  field  crops.  Annual  application  of 
twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  manure  to  an  acre  are  often  made 
on  garden  soils  and  in  addition  commercial  fertilizer  at  the 
rate  of  a  half  ton  or  more  to  the  acre  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
After  the  manure  is  spread  the  soil  should  be  plowed  to  a  good 
depth  and  harrowed  until  a  fine,  mellow  seed-bed  is  made. 
If  the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  sour,  apply  lime.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  ground  limestone  to  every  hundred  square  feet  of 
area  is  a  usual  application.  The  lime  may  be  spread  after 
the  land  is  plowed  and  before  it  is  harrowed.  Lime  and 
manure  or  lime  and  fertilizer  should  not  be  applied  at  the 
same  time,  as  a  chemical  action  meaning  loss  of  plant-food 
would  result. 

Tools  for  farm-gardening.  —  It  is  economy  to  plant  and  cul- 
tivate gardens  with  modern  tools.  A  combined  seeder  and 
cultivator  is  a  good  implement  to  use.  The  seeder  will  plant 
more  cheaply  and  better  than  can  be  done  by  hand  and  the 
same  implement  with  a  different  attachment  will,  if  used 
frequently,  keep  the  soil  mellow  and  free  from  weeds. 

For  some  vegetables  the  rows  may  be  made  wide  and  horse- 
power used  to  cultivate  the  garden,  but  in  the  case  of  others, 
string  beans  and  peas,  for  example,  too  wide  planting  is  not 
advisable  as  the  weeds  are  not  easily  kept  down  imless  the 
plants  shade  the  ground  between  the  rows. 

154.  Planting-table  for  vegetables. — A  very  complete  plant- 
ing-table for  vegetables  for  conditions  both  in  the  North  and  the 
South  is  given  in  Table  IV,  pages  284-5.  This  will  be  especially 
handy  for  reference. 


Vegetable-growing  283 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  general  what  are  the  differences  between  market-gardening 
and  truck-farming? 

2.  What  kinds  of  soil  are  best  for  vegetables?     Why? 

3.  Why  should  a  farmer  have  a  good  home-garden? 

4.  For  what  reasons  should  a  wide  range  of  crops  be  grown  in  the 
home-garden  ? 

5.  Name  some  hardy  vegetables  that  can  be  planted  early. 

6.  Why  do  vegetables  require  large  quantities  of  fertilizer? 

7.  State  the  advantages  of  using  modern  tools  in  caring  for  a 
garden  ? 

8.  Why  is  too  wide  planting  not  advisable  for  some  vegetable 
crops  ? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Farm-garden.  —  Plan  a  garden  for  your  own  farm,  taking  into 
consideration  vegetables  for  spring  and  fall  planting,  the  arrangement 
in  the  garden,  the  methods  of  planting,  the  quantity  of  seed  required, 
when  each  lot  of  seed  should  be  planted,  and  other  similar  matters. 

2.  Method  of  growing  cucumbers.  —  This  method  of  growing 
cucumbers  is  applicable  especially  to  a  small  garden.  The  equipment 
required  is  a  sugar  barrel,  a  quantity  of  manure,  cucumber  seeds,  a 
brace  and  one-inch  bit,  a  hammer,  nails,  and  a  short  strip  of  wood. 

Remove  the  top  from  the  barrel  and  bore  three  one-inch  holes  in 
each  stave,  spacing  them  about  six  inches  apart.  Bore  the  first  hole 
six  inches  from  the  bottom.  Nail  the  pieces  of  the  head  together  with 
the  strip  of  wood  to  form  a  cover  for  the  barrel.  Dig  a  hole  in  a  fertile 
spot  in  a  garden  and  place  the  barrel  in  this  hole  so  that  about  half  the 
barrel  is  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Fill  the  barrel  with  manure. 
Make  a  mound  of  fertile  soil  around  the  sides  of  the  barrel,  extending 
to  within  six  inches  of  the  top.  The  soil  should  be  about  twenty  inches 
thick  at  the  base.  Plant  six  or  eight  hills  of  cucumbers  in  the  mound 
of  soil  around  the  barrel,  placing  eight  or  ten  seeds  an  inch  deep  in  each 
hill. 

Pour  water  on  the  manure  in  the  barrel  each  day.  This  forms  a 
liquid  fertilizer  that  will  pass  through  the  holes  of  the  staves  and  fur- 
nish plant-food  and  moisture  to  the  cucumbers.  Keep  the  cover  on 
the  barrel,  except  when  watering  the  plants.  Flies  will  breed  rapidly 
in  the  manure  unless  the  barrel  is  kept  covered.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
start  to  run  to  vine,  remove  all  but  the  best  three  or  four  in  each  hill. 
This  will  leave  more  fertility  and  moisture  for  the  others.     Carefully 


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286  Effective  Farming 

weed  and  cultivate  the  soil  of  the  mound  of  earth  at  frequent  intervals 
during  the  growing  season,  and  an  excellent  crop  of  cucumbers  should 
be  harvested.     Keep  a  record  of  the  cost  of  labor,  materials,  and  yield. 

Grow  the  same  number  of  hills  of  cucumbers  in  the  garden  in  the 
usual  way  without  special  attention  to  plant-food  and  moisture  and 
contrast  the  results  with  those  of  the  cucumbers  grown  around  the 
barrel. 

3.  Forcing  crops  of  rhubarb.  —  In  the  spring,  crops  of  rhubarb  can 
be  much  hastened  by  artificially  heating  the  plants  in  the  following  way  : 
Place  an  inverted  half  barrel  over  the  clump  of  plants  and  pile  manure 
on  top  and  on  the  sides  of  the  barrel.  The  heat  from  the  manure  will 
cause  early  growth.  Leave  a  few  clumps  of  rhubarb  uncovered  and 
contrast  the  growth  in  the  two  lots.  Why  do  the  rhubarb  stalks  under 
the  barrel  grow  somewhat  spindling?  Why  is  there  a  difference  in 
color  between  the  covered  and  the  uncovered  plants? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  274- 
275;  279-281.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Taubenhaus,  J.  J.,  Diseases  of  Truck  Crops.     E.  P.  Button  &  Co. 

Davis,  K.  C,  School  and  Home  Gardening.     The  Lippincott  Co. 

Cobb,  Ernest,  Garden  Steps.     Silver,  Burdett  and  Company. 

Croy,  Mae.Savell,  Vegetable  Book.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Green,  Samuel  B.,  Vegetable  Gardening.     Webb  PubHshing  Co. 

Nolan  and  Green,  Vegetable  Gardening.     Row,  Peterson  &  Co. 

Reed,  E.  N.,  Late  Cabbage.     Wiley  and  Sons. 

Yeaw,  F.  L.,  Market  Gardening.    Wiley  and  Sons. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  121,  Beans,  Peas,  etc.  as  Food. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  254,  Cucumbers. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  255,  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  647,   Home  Garden  in  the  South. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  642,  Tomato  Growing  in  the  South. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  232,  Okra  :    Its  Culture  and  Uses. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  220,  Tomatoes.  - 

Farmers'  Bulletin  766,  The  Common  Cabbage  Worm. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  818,  The  Small  Vegetable  Garden. 

Bureau  of  Education,  Department  of  the  Interior,  Washington,  D.  C, 
School  Home-Garden  Circulars  1-10. 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Reading-Course  Bulletin  30,  Vege- 
table Gardening,  and  Bulletin  34,  Home-Garden  Planting. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

Importance  of  animal  feeding. 

Functions  of  feed. 

Balanced  rations. 

Kinds  of  feeds. 

Palatability  of  feed. 

Effect  of  feed  on  the  digestion. 

Cost  of  feed. 

Suiting  the  feed  to  the  animal. 

Digestibility  of  feed. 

We  have  learned  that  we  cannot  expect  good  crops  unless 
we  provide  the  plants  the  proper  kinds  and  quantities  of  food 
materials.  Similarly  we  cannot  hope  to  have  the  best  domestic 
animals,  or  to  secure  the  heaviest  yields  from  them,  unless  we 
learn  how  to  feed  them.  The  feeding  of  animals  has  now 
come  to  be  a  complex  subject,  due  to  the  greater  knowledge 
we  have  secured,  the  attempt  to  use  many  new  kinds  of  feed, 
and  the  necessity  of  obtaining  surer  results.  The  principles 
of  feeding  are  not  difficult  to  understand,  however,  and  we  are 
now  about  to  discuss  them  and  to  learn  how  to  make  some  of 
the  applications  to  practice. 

155.  Importance  of  animal  feeding.  —  The  feeding  of  farm 
animals  is  an  important  part  of  animal  husbandry.  Many 
feeders  who  know  only  the  art  of  feeding  are  successful,  but 
when  a  man  is  found  who  knows  both  the  art  and  the  science 
of  the  work,  he  usually  is  doubly  successful.  The  principles 
on  which  the  feeding  of  farm  animals  is  based  deal  with  such 
factors  as  the  composition  of  the  various  feed  stuffs,  the  diges- 
tion and  absorption  of  the  feed,  the  quantity  and  kind  of  feed 

287 


288  Effective  Farming 

required  by  different  classes  of  animals,  whether  or  not  the  feeds 
are  palatable  to  the  animals,  and  their  cost  and  availability. 

156.  Functions  of  feed.  —  When  taken  into  the  animal  body 
and  digested  and  absorbed,  feed  performs  certain  functions. 
In  the  first  place  it  creates  energy  that  is  used  in  moving  the 
body  about,  in  heating  the  body,  in  carrying  blood  through  the 
circulatory  system,  in  moving  the  food  through  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  the  hke.  In  addition,  energy  is  required  to  produce 
the  changes  that  are  going  on  in  the  cells  of  the  body.  The 
feed  also  builds  up  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  secretes  the 
fluids  necessary  for  the  life  processes.  Tissues  are  constantly 
wearing  out  and  must  be  replaced. 

The  water,  ash,  carbohydrates,  protein,  and  fat  all  have  their 
uses  when  taken  into  the  animal  body.  Water  is  contained 
in  every  kind  of  living  tissue  and  none  of  the  life  processes 
can  be  carried  on  without  it.  The  body  of  an  animal  is  about 
50  per  cent  water  and  the  fluids  range  from  90  to  99  per  cent 
water.  As  in  plants,  water  is  the  means  by  which  the  food 
is  carried  from  place  to  place  in  the  body.  Water  also  helps 
to  keep  the  temperature  normal. 

Ash  is  used  largely  to  furnish  mineral  matter  for  the  bones. 
In  the  case  of  hens  it  furnishes  the  material  for  the  egg-shells. 
A  certain  amount  of  ash  is  found  in  all  tissue. 

Lean  meat,  or  muscle,  blood,  skin,  hair,  hoofs,  and  vital 
organs  are  largely  protein.  As  these  tissues  are  made  out  of 
the  protein  of  the  feed,  it  is  readily  seen  why  the  proper  quan- 
tity of  protein  in  the  feed  is  so  necessary.  If  there  is  in  the 
feed  more  than  enough  protein  to  supply  that  needed  in  build- 
ing up  the  lean  meat  and  other  tissues,  the  surplus  goes  to 
make  energy.  As  energy  can  be  produced  more  cheaply  by 
the  use  of  carbohydrates  and  fats,  it  is  not  profitable  to  have 
feeds  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  protein  than  is  necessary. 

The  carbohydrates  produce  energy  and  heat  and  build  up 
the  fat  of  the  body.  Therefore,  feeds  rich  in  carbohydrates, 
such  as  corn,  are  fattening. 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  289 

Fat,  when  taken  into  the  body  as  feed,  acts  the  same  as 
carbohydrates ;  that  is,  it  produces  heat  and  energy  and  makes 
fat.  A  given  quantity  of  fat  will  produce  about  two  and  a 
quarter  times  as  much  heat  and  energy  as  the  same  quantity 
of  carbohydrates. 

157.  Balanced  rations.  —  The  term  ration  is  used  to  in- 
dicate the  quantity  of  feed  suppHed  to  an  animal  in  a  given 
time.  A  balanced  ration  is  one  that  supphes  all  the  con- 
stituents in  the  best  proportion  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  animal 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  kept.  For  example,  a  balanced 
ration  for  a  dairy  cow  contains  the  food  compounds  necessary 
to  maintain  life  and  to  make  it  possible  to  produce  milk  up  to 
the  limit.  Experiments  and  practical  tests  have  shown  that 
animals  will  do  more  work  and  more  profitably  when  fed  a 
balanced  ration  than  when  fed  an  unbalanced  one. 

The  terms  maintenance  ration  and  productive  ration  are 
used  in  connection  with  animal  feeding.  A  maintenance  ration 
is  one  that  supplies  the  needs  of  an  animal  at  rest  with  no 
loss  or  gain  of  weight.  A  productive  ration  is  one  that  supplies 
the  needs  of  the  animal  in  excess  of  maintenance  and  makes 
possible  a  production  of  milk,  a  gain  in  weight,  or  power  to 
pull  a  load,  and  the  like.  The  terms  nutritive  ratio,  wide 
ratio,  and  narrow  ratio,  also  need  defining.  The  nutritive 
ratio  is  that  of  the  digestible  protein  in  a  feed  or  ration  to  the 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat.  (See  paragraph  163.)  To 
compute  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed  or  ration,  the  amount  of 
the  digestible  fat  is  multiplied  by  2|  and  added  to  the  amount 
of  the  digestible  carbohydrates  and  the  sum  divided  by  the 
amount  of  the  digestible  protein.  The  ratio  is  expressed  as  1 
to  the  quotient.  For  example,  suppose  a  ration  furnished  2.6 
pounds  of  digestible  protein,  13  pounds  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, and  .6  pound  of  fat ;  the  nutritive  ratio  is  calculated 
as  follows : 

(.6  X  2J  +  13)  ^  2.6  =  5.5  -f- 

The  nutritive  ratio  is,  therefore,  1 :  5.5. 


290 


Effective  Farming 


A  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  one  in  which  the  relative  proportion 
of  protein  is  small  and  the  carbohydrates  large.  A  narrow 
nutritive  ratio  is  one  in  which  the  protein  is  large  and  the 
carbohydrates  small.  In  practice  a  ratio  of  1 :  5  or  less  is  said 
to  be  narrow ;  one  from  1:5  to  1:8  medium,  and  one  larger 
than  1 :  8  wide. 

158.  Kinds  of  feeds.  —  Feeds  may  be  grouped  as  concen- 
trates and  roughage.  Concentrates  are  those  that  yield  a  large 
proportion  of  digestible  nutrients.  They  include  the  grains, 
seeds,  and  by-products.  The  grains  are  rich  in  carbohydrates 
and  rather  poor  in  protein,  as  shown  by  the  analyses  given  in 
Table  V. 

TABLE   V 

Composition  of  Grains 


Composition 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Feed 

Nitrogen- 

Fat 

% 

% 

% 

Fiber 

% 

frel 
Extract 

% 

% 

Corn,  grain 

10.6 

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5. 

Wheat,  grain 

10.5 

1.8 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

Oats,  grain 

10.4 

3.2 

11.4 

10.8 

59.4 

4.8 

Barley,  grain 

10.8 

2.5 

12.0 

4.2 

68.7 

1.8 

Rye,  grain 

8.7 

2.1 

11.3 

1.5 

74.5 

1.9 

Note.  —  This  and  the  succeeding  tabulations  of  the  compositions  of 
feed  stuffs  are  from  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Principles  of  Animal  Feed- 
ing," published  by  the  International  Textbook  Co. 


Most  by-product  feeds  are  rich  in  protein  and  poor  in  car- 
bohydrates. They  are  much  used  with  the  grains  in  securing 
a  proper  balance  of  the  concentrates  of  a  ration.  In  Table  VI 
are  given  the  analyses  of  some  of  the  most  common  by-product 
feeds  arranged  in  order  of  the  proportion  of  protein  that  they 
contain. 


Feeding  Farm  Animals 

TABLE   VI 
Composition  of  By-product  Feeds 


291 


Composition 

Water 

% 

Ash 

% 

Protein 

% 

Carbohydratea 

Feed 

Fiber 

% 

Nitrogen- 
free 
ICxtract 

% 

Fat 

% 

Hominy  feed       .     .     . 
Corn  bran      .... 
Rye  middlings    .     .     . 

Rye  bran 

Wheat  bran   .... 
Shorts 

9.6 
9.4 
11.8 
11.8 
11.9 
11.2 

2.7 
1.2 
1.7 
3.4 
5.8 
4.4 
2.4 
3.7 
2.0 
6.1 
2.0 
1.5 
5.5 
5.5 
6.6 
15.9 
4.7 

10.5 
11.2 
14.3 
14.6 
15.4 
16.9 
21.7 
25.0 
25.0 
26.3 
31.2 
33.8 
33.9 
37.5 
45.3 
53.9 
84.4 

4.9 

11.9 

2.4 

3.5 

9.0 

6.2 

8.8 

13.6 

6.8 

11.6 

11.6 

2.0 

7.3 

8.9 

6.3 

5.8 

64.3 
60.1 
66.9 
63.9 
53.9 
56.2 
47.3 
42.3 
53.5 
44.9 
35.4 
46.2 
35.7 
36.4 
24.6 
5.6 

8.0 
6.2 
2.9 
2.8 
4.0 
5.1 

Germ  oil  meal     .     .     . 
Dried  brewers'  grains  . 
Gluten  feed    .... 
Malt  sprouts 
Dried  distillers'  grains 
Gluten  meal        .     .     . 
Old  process  linseed  meal 
New  process  linseed  meal 
Cottonseed  meal     .     . 
Tankage 

8.6 
8.7 
9.2 
9.5 
7.6 
9.5 
9.8 
9.7 
7.0 
7.0 

11.2 
6.7 
3.5 
1.6 

12.2 
6.6 
7.8 
2.0 

10.2 

11.8 

Dried  blood   .... 

8.5 

2.5 

Roughage  feeds  are  those  of  a  bulky  nature.  They  may  be 
either  dry  or  succulent.  The  hays,  straws,  and  fodders  are 
dry  roughages  and  silage,  roots,  pasturages,  and  soiHng  crops 
are  succulent.  Roughages  contain  a  large  proportion  of  crude 
fiber  and  are  less  digestible  than  the  concentrates.  They  are 
of  value,  however,  for  a  certain  quantity  of  bulk  must  be  in 
the  feed  to  aid  digestion.  Some  classes  of  animals  require 
more  bulky  feeds  than  others.  For  example  a  dairy  cow 
must  have  more  bulk  in  her  feed  than  a  horse  requires. 

Hay  is  the  most  valuable  dry  roughage.  Hays  may  be 
classed  as  leguminous  and  non-leguminous.  Since  leguminous 
hays  are  richer  in  protein  than  hay  from  grasses,  less  protein 


292 


Effective  Farming 


in  the  form  of  concentrates  is  necessary.  Leguminous  hays 
are  especially  valuable  for  dairy  cows ;  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea, 
and  soybean  hays  are  largely  used  in  rations  for  dairy  cattle. 
Table  VII  gives  analyses  of  some  of  the  leading  hays. 

TABLE   VII 

Composition  of  Hays 


Composition 

Carbohydrates 

Feed 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Fat 

% 

% 

% 

Fiber 

% 

Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 

% 

% 

Alfalfa 

6.6 

9.0 

15.8 

30.2 

35.8 

1.9 

Cowpea  hay  .     .     . 

10.5 

14.2 

8.9 

21.2 

42.6 

2.6 

Soybean  hay 

1L8 

7.0 

14.9 

24.2 

37.8 

4.3 

Red  clover  hay   .     . 

15.3 

6.2 

12.3 

24.8 

38.1 

3.3 

Crimson  clover  hay 

9.6 

8.6 

15.2 

27.2 

36.6 

2.8 

Japan  clover  hay    . 

11.0 

8.5 

13.8 

24.0 

39.0 

3.7 

Bur  clover  hay  .     . 

9.0 

5.0 

13.6 

30.6 

38.2 

3.6 

Timothy  hay      .     . 

13.2 

4.4 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

Barley  hay     .     .     . 

5.5 

4.2 

8.8 

24.7 

44.9 

2.4 

Oat  hay     ...     . 

14.4 

5.7 

8.9 

27.4 

41.2 

2.8 

Redtop  hay   .     .     . 

8.7 

4.9 

8.0 

29.9 

46.4 

2.1 

Rye  hay    .... 

9.5 

5.7 

10.8 

32.6 

38.7 

2.7 

Mixed  grasses  hay  . 

15.3 

5.5 

7.4 

27.2 

42.1 

e.5 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover  hay 

12.9 

5.5 

10.1 

27.6 

41.3 

2.6 

The  straws  are  very  high  in  crude  fiber.  Nevertheless  they 
are  of  some  value  as  feed.  Horses  doing  no  work  or  dry  cows 
are  sometimes  given  straw  as  a  part  of  their  rations,  as  they 
do  not  need  roughages  containing  richer  feed  materials.  In  the 
analyses  given  in  Table  VIII  the  relatively  small  percentages 
of  nitrogen-free  extract  and  protein  and  the  high  percentages 
of  fiber  should  be  compared  with  the  analyses  previously 
given. 


Feeding  Farm  Animals 


293 


TABLE   VIII 
Composition  of  Straws  and  Corn  Stover 


Composition 

Feed 

Water 

% 

Ash 

% 

Protein 

% 

Carbohydrates 

Fiber 

% 

Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 

% 

Fat 

% 

Wheat  straw 

9.6 

4.2 

3.4 

38.1 

43.4 

1.3 

Oat  straw 

9.2 

5.1 

4.0 

38.1 

42.4 

2.3 

Rye  straw 

7.1 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46.6 

1.2 

Barley  straw 

14.2 

5.7 

3.5 

36.0 

39.0 

1.5 

Corn  fodder 

42.4 

2.7 

4.5 

14.3 

34.7 

1.6 

Corn  stover 

40.5 

3.4 

3.8 

19.7 

31.7 

1.1 

Fodders  and  stovers  come  principally  from  the  corn  plant. 
Corn  fodder  is  the  whole  mature  dried  plant.  Corn  stover  is 
the  mature  dried  plant  minus  the  ears.  They  compare  with 
the  grass  hays  in  analyses.  Often  the  fodder  or  the  stover  is 
shredded  before  it  is  fed.  This  prepares  it  in  better  form  for 
feeding  than  if  left  whole.  Fodder  is  often  fed  to  fattening 
steers,  but  for  dairy  cows  it  is  less  desirable.  Corn  stover  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  maintenance  ration  for  keeping  steers 
over  the  winter,  but  it  is  not  especially  desirable  when  large 
quantities  are  fed.  The  analyses  of  the  two  feeds  are  given  in 
Table  VIII. 

The  succulent  roughages  contain  a  large  proportion  of  water 
and  are  very  valuable  for  this  reason.  Pasturage  forms  prac- 
tically a  balanced  ration  for  dairy  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses; 
often  they  are  given  no  other  feed.  Hard-worked  animals 
should,  however,  receive  some  supplement  to  pasturage. 

Silage,  soiling  crops,  and  root  crops  are  fed  extensively  to 
dairy  cows,  since  a  large  quantity  of  succulence  is  necessary 
for  animals  in  milk  flow.     Succulence  not  only  aids  in  milk 


294 


Effective  Farming 


flow,  but  helps  to  keep  the  bowels  in  a  lax  condition,  which  is 
essential  to  high  production  of  milk.  The  analyses  of  a  few 
of  the  most  used  succulent  feeds  are  given  in  Table  IX. 


TABLE  IX 
Composition  of  Green  Crops 


Composition 

Carbohydrates 

Feed  (Green) 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Fat 

% 

% 

% 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 

% 

. 

71.8 

% 

Extract 

% 

Alfalfa 

2.7 

4.8 

7.4 

12.3 

1.0 

Silage  corn     . 

73.6 

2.1 

2.7 

7.8 

12.9 

0.9 

Corn     .     .     . 

79.3 

1.2 

1.8 

5.0 

12.0 

0.5 

Crimson  clover 

80.9 

1.7 

3.1 

5.2 

8.4 

0.7 

Common  millet 

80.0 

1.0 

1.5 

6.5 

10.5 

0.5 

Pasture  grass 

80.0 

2.0 

3.5 

4.0 

9.7 

0.8 

Peas  and  oats 

79.7 

1.6 

2.4 

6.1 

9.6 

0.6 

Red  clover 

70.8 

2.1 

4.4 

8.1 

13.5 

1.1 

Sorghum    . 

79.4 

1.1 

1.3 

6.1 

11.6 

0.5 

Soybeans 

75.1 

2.6 

4.0 

6.7 

10.6 

1.0 

Sugar-beets 

86.5 

0.9 

1.8 

0.9 

9.8 

0.1 

Carrots 

88.6 

1.0 

1.1 

1.3 

7.6 

0.4 

Mangels    . 

90.9 

1.1 

1.4 

0.9 

5.5 

0.2 

Rutabagas 

88.6 

1.2 

1.2 

1.3 

7.5 

0.2 

Turnips      . 

90.1 

0.9 

1.3 

1.2 

6.3 

0.2 

159.  Palatability  of  feed.  —  Feed  must  be  eaten  with  relish 
to  give  the  best  results.  If  a  ration  is  not  palatable,  an  animal 
will  not  eat  it  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  for  productive- 
ness. A  mixture  of  feeds  is  often  more  palatable  to  an  animal 
than  one  feed ;  a  little  more  succulence  in  the  ration  often 
causes  the  animal  to  eat  with  a  greater  relish ;  the  substitution 
of  one  kind  of  mill  feed  for  another  is  often  an  advantage. 
Moldy  feed  is  not  relished  by  animals  and  often  it  may  cause 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  295 

sickness  or  death.     The  keeping  of  feed  boxes  clean  is  a  good 
way  to  increase  the  palatability  of  the  ration. 

160.  Effect  of  feed  on  the  digestion.  —  Another  factor  that 
must  be  considered  is  the  effect  of  the  feed  on  the  digestive 
system  of  the  animal.  Some  feeds  are  laxative  in  character; 
others  are  constipating.  Succulent  feeds  are  laxative,  so  also 
are  linseed  meal  and  wheat  bran ;  corn  stover  and  timothy  hay 
are  somewhat  constipating  to  cattle  and  for  this  reason  dairy- 
men often  avoid  them ;  cottonseed  meal  is  also  constipating 
if  fed  in  too  large  quantities. 

161.  Cost  of  feed.  —  If  the  farmer  is  a  good  business  man, 
he  will  consider  the  cost  item  carefully.  As  a  rule  home- 
grown feeds  are  cheaper  than  purchased  ones  and  progressive 
farmers  make  use  of  them  whenever  possible.  Growing  a 
leguminous  hay  and  including  it  in  the  ration  will  often  make 
it  possible  to  cut  down  on  the  quantity  of  by-product  con- 
centrates necessary.  At  times  it  may  pay  to  sell  certain  feeds 
and  buy  others  to  take  their  places.  In  figuring  the  cost  of 
feeds,  the  cost  of  the  protein  determines  largely  the  choice  of 
feeds.     This  is  especially  true  in  the  West. 

162.  Suiting  the  feed  to  the  animal.  —  Timothy  hay  is  very 
good  for  horses,  but  is  not  suited  to  dairy  cattle.  Red  clover 
hay,  although  richer  in  protein  than  timothy,  is  not  so  often 
fed  to  horses,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  dusty.  Dairy  cattle,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  fed  red  clover  hay  in  preference  to  timothy. 

163.  Digestibility  of  feed.  —  A  part  of  the  food  that  is  taken 
into  the  alimentary  tract  is  not  digested  and  passes  from  the 
body  as  waste  matter.  The  proportion  of  the  food  digested 
depends  on  the  kind,  the  class  of  the  animal,  and  the  condition 
of  health  of  the  animal.  The  value  of  a  feed  when  eaten  by 
an  animal  depends  on  how  much  of  it  is  digested.  The  term 
digestible  nutrients  is  used  to  indicate  the  portion  of  the  food 
materials  that  is  digested  and  absorbed  by  the  animal.  Ex- 
periments have  been  made  with  each  kind  of  feed  to  determine 
the  proportion  of  digestible  nutrients.     The  results  are  not 


296 


Effective  Farming 


absolutely  accurate,  but  they  are  sufficiently  so  for  practical 
purposes.  In  Table  X  is  found  a  tabulation  giving  the  digestible 
nutrients  of  the  feeds  of  which  the  composition  is  given  on 
previous  pages. 

TABLE   X 

Digestible  Nutrients  of  Feeds 


Feed 


Total  Dry 
Matter  in 

100   LB. 


Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Hominy  feed 

Corn  bran 

Eye  middlings 

Rye  bran 

Wheat  bran 

Shorts        

Germ  oil  meal 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Gluten  meal 

Old  process  linseed  meal      .     . 
New  process  linseed  meal     . 

Cottonseed  meal 

Tankage   

Dried  blood 

Alfalfa  hay 

Cowpea  hay 

Soybean  hay 

Red  clover  hay       .     .     .     .     . 

Japan  clover  hay 

Bur  clover  hay        

Timothy  hay 

Barley  hay 

Oat  hay 

Redtop  hay        

Mixed  grasses  and  clover  hay 
Wheat  straw 


89.4 
89.5 
89.6 
89.2 
91.3 
90.4 
90.6 
88.2 
88.2 
88.1 
88.8 
91.4 
91.3 
90.8 
90.2 
90.3 
93.0 
93.6 
91.5 
93.4 
89.5 
88.2 
84.7 
89.0 
91.0 
86.8 
85.0 
86.0 
91.1 
87.1 
90.4 


Digestible  Nutrients 

IN  100  LB. 


Protein  lb.     Ca^tf^; 


7.8 

8.8 

10.7 

8.4 

9.5 

6.8 

6.0 

11.0 

11.2 

11.9 

13.0 

15.8 

20.0 

21.3 

30.2 

31.5 

37.6 

50.1 

60.8 

11.4 

5.8 

10.6 

7.1 

9.1 

8.2 

2.8 

5.7 

4.7 

4.8 

5.8 

0.8 


66.8 
67.5 
50.3 
65.3 
69.4 
60.5 
52.5 
52.9 
46.8 
42.0 
45.7 
38.8 
32.2 
52.8 
32.0 
35.7 
21.4 


40.0 
9.3 
40.9 
37.8 
37.7 
39.0 
42.4 
43.6 
36.7 
46.9 
41.8 
35.2 


Fat  lb. 


4.3 
1.5 
3.8 
1.6 
1.2 
7.4 
4.8 
2.6 
1.8 
2.5 
4.5 

10.8 
6.0 
2.9 
6.9 
2.4 
9.6 

11.6 
2.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.2 
1.8 
1.4 
2.1 
1.3 
1.0 
1.7 
1.0 
1.3 
0.4 


Feeding  Farm  Animals 
TABLE   X  {Continued) 


297 


Digestible  Nutrients 

Total  Dry 

IN   100  LB. 

Feed 

Matter  in 

100  LB. 

Protein  lb. 

Carbohy- 
drates lb. 

Fat  lb. 

Oat  straw 

90.8 

1.3 

39.5 

0.8 

Rye  straw      . 

92.9 

0.7 

39.6 

0.4 

Barley  straw 

85.8 

0.9 

40.1 

0.6 

Corn  fodder  . 

57.8 

2.5 

34.6 

1.2 

Corn  stover.  . 

59.5 

1.4 

31.2 

0.7 

Alfalfa,  green 

28.2 

3.6 

12.1 

0.4 

Silage,  corn   . 

26.4 

1.4 

14.2 

0.7 

Corn,  green  . 

20.7 

1.0 

11.9 

0.4 

Crimson  clover,  green 

19.1 

2.4 

9.1 

0.5 

Common  millet,  green 

20.0 

0.8 

11.0 

0.2 

Pasture  grass 

20.0 

2.5 

10.1 

0.5 

Red  clover,  green 

29.2 

2.9 

14.9 

0.5 

Sorghum,  green 

20.6 

0.6 

11.6 

0.3 

Soybeans,  green 

24.9 

3.1 

11.0 

0.7 

Sugar-beets   .     . 

13.5 

1.3 

9.8 

0.1 

Carrots 

11.4 

0.8 

7.7 

0.3 

Mangels    .     .     . 

9.1 

1.0 

5.5 

0.2 

Rutabagas     . 

j      11.4 

1.0 

8.1 

0.2 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  functions  of  feed  when  digested  and  absorbed  by 
an  animal? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  the  water  in  a  feed  ? 

3.  Why  is  it  not  economy  to  supply  an  excess  of  protein  in  feed  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  balanced  ration  ? 

5.  Define  maintenance  ration,  productive  ration,  nutritive  ratio. 

6.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  ration  that  contains  2.8  pounds 
of  digestible  protein,  14  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  .6 
pound  of  fat  ? 

7.  Find  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  following  feeds  according  to  the 
analyses  of  the  digestible  nutrients  given  in  Table  X  :  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  wheat  bran,  cottonseed  meal,  alfalfa  hay,  timothy  hay,  wheat 
straw,  pasture  grass,  mangels. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  feeds  rich  in  protein  and  one  of  feeds  low  in 
protein. 


298  Effective  Farming 

9.    Why  should  the  concentrates  of  a  ration  be  richer  in  protein 
if  timothy  hay  is  fed  as  the  roughage  than  if  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  ? 

10.    Why  are  silage,  soiling  crops,  and  roots  fed  extensively  to  dairy 
cows  ? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  56-122, 
58,  92,  103,  106.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Jordan,  W.  H.,  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Henry,  W.  A.,  Feeds  and  Feeding.  Published  by  the  author.  Madi- 
son, Wis. 

Henry,  W.  A.,  and  Morrison,  F.  B.,  Feeds  and  Feeding.  Abridged. 
The  Henry-Morrison  Co.,  Madison,  Wis. 

Armsby,  Henry  P.,  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition.     Wiley  and  Sons. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  22,  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  346,  The  Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals 
by  the    Use  of  Energy  Values. 

Animal  Industry  Bulletin  143  (U.  S.  Department  Agriculture),  Main- 
tenance Rations  of  Farm  Animals. 

Experiment  Stations  Bulletin  77  (U.  S.  Department  Agriculture), 
Digestibility  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs. 


CHAPTER  XV 

HORSES 

Types  of  horses. 

Draft,  heavy-harness,  light-harness,  saddle,  ponies. 
The  draft  breeds. 

Percheron,  Clydesdale,  Shire,  Belgian,  Suffolk. 
The  heavy-harness  breeds. 

Hackney,  French  Coach,  German  Coach,  Cleveland  Bay. 
The  light-harness  breed! 

Standard-bred. 
The  saddle-horse  breeds. 

Thoroughbred,  American  saddlers,  Arabian. 
Ponies. 

Shetland,  Welsh,  Hackney,  Bronchos  and  Indian  ponies. 
Market  classes  of  horses  and  mules. 
Breaking  and  training  colts. 

Teaching  the  colt  to  stand  tied. 

Gentling  the  colt. 

Teaching  the  colt  to  lead. 

Handling  the  feet  of  the  colt. 

Teaching  the  colt  the  commands  used  in  driving. 

Driving  in  double  harness. 

Driving  in  single  harness. 

Breaking  the  colt  to  ride. 
Feeds  for  horses. 
Time  to  water  horses. 
Soundness  in  horses. 
Determining  age  of  horses. 

It  is  often  said  that  the  horse  will  soon  pass  away  as  a  farm 
animal  because  of  the  automobile,  motor-truck,  and  tractor. 
This  is  an  error.  Much  of  the  farm  work  can  never  be  per- 
formed economically  by  mechanical  power.  There  are  a 
thousand  uses  for  horses  for  which  it  would  not  be  worth  while 
to  invent  power  machinery.     The  money  value  of  horses  is 

299 


300  Effective  Farming 

increasing,  at  the  same  time  that  the  use  of  automobiles 
is  increasing.  This  is  specially  true  of  heavy  horses.  The 
raising  of  colts  as  an  adjunct  to  other  farm  business  is  a  good 
practice.  Mares  are  therefore  particularly  desirable  as  farm 
horses. 

In  the  South  the  mule  is  in  more  favor  for  farm  work  than 
the  horse.  He  stands  the  heat,  is  adapted  to  rough  conditions, 
and  is  better  handled  by  colored  labor. 

164.  Types.  —  Horses  may  be  grouped  as  draft,  heavy- 
harness,  light-harness,  saddle  horses,  and  ponies.  A  brief 
description  of  each  of  these  types  follows. 

The  points  of  the  horse  are  shown  in  Fig.  118.  The  location 
of  these  points  should  be  learned,  as  they  will  be  helpful  in 
understanding  the  descriptions  that  follow. 

Draft  horses.  —  Those  horses  used  for  pulUng  heavy  loads 
are  known  as  draft  horses.  They  are  broad,  deep,  low-set, 
and  massive,  ranging  in  weight  from  1600  to  2500  pounds. 
Those  that  weigh  less  than  1600  pounds  are  known  on  the 
market  as  chunks.  Draft  horses  range  in  height  from  15  to 
17  hands.i 

A  broad,  deep,  compact  body  set  on  rather  short  legs  is  the 
general  conformation  of  a  draft  horse.  The  head  should  lack 
coarseness,  the  forehead  should  be  broad  with  good  width 
between  the  eyes,  the  neck  of  moderate  length,  and  neatly 
fitted  to  the  shoulders,  which  should  be  obliquely  set  and  of 
good  length.  The  back  should  be  fairly  short,  the  chest,  deep 
and  broad,  the  coupling  short,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  the  croup 
should  be  straight  and  of  moderate  length.  The  hind  legs 
should  be  well  placed,  the  thighs  and  quarters  well  muscled, 
the  hocks  clean,  the  pasterns  sloping,  and  the  feet  large  and 
sound.  In  action  the  horse  should  show  snap  and  vigor,  es- 
pecially in  the  walk,  and  the  stride  should  be  long  and  regular. 

^  Height  in  horses  is  measured  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the 
withers.  The  unit  of  measurement  is  a  hand,  or  4  inches.  A  height 
of  15-3  hands  means  15  hands  and  3  inches. 


Horses 


301 


Heavy-harness  horses.  —  The  show  horses  of  the  parks  are 
classed  as  heavy-harness  horses.  They  are  known,  also,  as 
coach,  or  carriage,  horses.  The  weight  varies  somewhat  ac- 
cording to  the  breed ;   mares  and  geldings  range  from  1 100  to 


^z 


Fig.  118.  —  Points  of  the  horse.  1,  muzzle  ;  2,  Hps ;  3,  nostril ;  4,  face  ;  5,  eye ; 
6,  forehead  ;  7,  foretop  ;  8,  ears  ;  9,  poll ;  10,  jaw;  11,  throatlatch  ;  12,  neck; 
1.3,  crest;  14,  withers;  15,  shoulder;  16,  breast;  17,  point  of  shoulder; 
18,  arm;  19,  elbow;  20,  fore  flank;  21,  forearm;  22,  knee;  23,  cannon; 
24,  fetlock  joint ;  25,  pastern  ;  26,  coronet ;  27,  feet ;  28,  seat  of  side  bone  ; 
29,  seat  of  splint;  .30,  chestnut;  31,  abdomen;  32,  ribs;  33,  back;  34,  loin; 
35,  point  of  hip  ;  36,  coupling ;  37,  hind  flank ;  38.  sheath ;  39,  stifle  joint ; 
40,  seat  of  thoroughpin ;  41,  seat  of  bog  spavin;  42,  seat  of  bone  spavin; 
43,  seat  of  ring  bone ;  44,  seat  of  curb ;  45j  hock ;  46,  gaskin ;  47,  thigh ; 
48,  quarter;  49,  croup;  50,  point  of  buttock;  51,  tail. 


1250  pounds  and  stallions  from  1250  to  1450  pounds.  The 
typical  coach  horse  stands  about  16  hands  high.  The 
animals  are  less  angular  than  the  light-harness  horses,  next 
described,  and   show  less  speed.     The  head  should   be  lean, 


302  Effective  Farming 

the  neck  somewhat  arched,  the  shoulders  long  and  sloping, 
the  body  round  with  a  broad  back,  the  croup  long  and  level 
with  heavy  muscHng,  the  pasterns  sloping,  and  the  feet  of  fair 
size.  Quality  and  action  are  of  prime  importance.  The  bone 
must  be  of  good  texture,  the  hair  fine  and  silky,  the  skin  soft 
and  smooth,  and  the  muscles  and  veins  prominent.  The  action 
should  be  smooth  and  high,  good  knee  and  hock  action  being 
especially  desirable. 

Light-harness  horses.  —  Both  roadsters  and  speed  horses  are 
included  in  the  light-harness  horse  class.  Roadsters  have 
endurance,  good  speed  on  the  road,  and  are  well  adapted  for 
drawing  light  vehicles.  As  a  type  they  are  less  uniform  than 
any  of  the  others.  A  typical  one,  however,  weighs  about 
1000  pounds  and  stands  from  15-1  to  15-3  hands  high.  The 
muscles  should  be  prominent  and  the  form  decidedly  angular. 
The  head  should  be  lean  and  refined,  the  neck  slender  and  of 
good  length,  and  the  shoulders  sloping.  The  body  is  usually 
rather  closely  coupled  and  shows  heavy  muscles  over  the  loins. 
The  bone  should  be  fine  in  texture,  the  hair  fine  and  glossy, 
and  the  skin  soft;  these  indications  of  quality  are  essential. 
The  pasterns  should  slope  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees 
with  the  ground,  be  of  good  length,  and  show  elasticity.  The 
stride  should  be  straight  and  long.  Speed  on  the  road  is  of 
prime  importance. 

Speed  horses  driven  in  harness  include  both  trotters  and 
pacers  and  they  have  the  general  conformation  of  roadsters. 
Endurance  and  speed  on  the  race  track  in  such  horses  are,  of 
course,  especially  necessary. 

Saddle  horses.  —  Horses  of  the  saddle  type  are  used  for 
pleasure  riding,  racing,  and  hunting.  They  range  in  height 
from  14  to  16  hands  and  in  weight  from  about  850  to  1050 
pounds.  A  saddle  horse  should  be  sure-footed,  an  easy-rider, 
and  easily  controlled.  In  conformation  it  should  have  oblique 
shoulders  and  pasterns  to  give  spring  to  the  action  ;  high,  thin 
withers  to  prevent  the  saddle  from  turning ;   and  a  short  back 


Horses  303 

and  short  loins  to  give  strength  for  carrying  the  weight  of  the 
rider. 

Sub-classes  of  saddle  horses  according  to  action  are  five- 
gaited  and  three-gaited  animals.  Five-gaited  saddlers  must 
possess  five  gaits  —  walk,  trot,  canter,  singlefoot,  or  rack,  and 
a  slow  gait  which  may  be  either  the  running  walk,  fox-trot,  or 
slow  pace.  Three-gaited  saddlers  have  the  three  gaits  —  walk, 
trot,  and  canter. 

The  canter  is  a  slow  gallop.  The  rack  is  a  rather  fast  gait 
in  which  each  foot  hits  the  ground  at  a  different  time.  It  is 
often  called  the  singlefoot  gait.  The  running  walk  is  a  slow 
singlefoot  that  is  intermediate  in  speed  between  the  walk  and 
the  rack.  The  fox-trot  is  a  short  broken  gait  in  which  the 
front  legs  go  at  a  trot  and  the  hind  legs  at  a  modified  pace. 
The  slow  pace  is  a  saddle  gait  in  which  the  horse  paces  at 
slow  speed,  but  does  not  show  much  side  motion. 

Ponies.  —  A  pony  is  any  horse,  regardless  of  type  of  breed, 
under  14-2  hands  in  height.  At  the  horse  shows,  they  are 
usually  grouped  into  three  classes:  (1)  under  46  inches  high; 
(2)  12-2  to  14-2  hands ;  (3)  polo  ponies. 

165.  The  draft  breeds.  —  Percheron,  Clydesdale,  Shire, 
Belgian,  and  Suffolk  are  the  draft  breeds  of  horses  found  in 
the  United  States.  A  brief  description  of  each  breed  is  given 
on  the  next  few  pages. 

Percheron.  —  The  most  popular  draft  horse  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Percheron  (Fig.  119).  More  horses  of  this  breed 
are  registered  as  pure-bred  animals  than  of  all  the  other  draft 
breeds  combined.  The  breed  derives  its  name  from  the  dis- 
trict of  La  Perche  in  northwestern  France.  The  exact  origin 
of  the  breed  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  according  to  most 
authorities  it  was  developed  by  the  crossing  of  native  mares 
and  Arabian  stallions  that  were  brought  to  the  district  in 
1820  by  the  French  government.  Percherons  range  in  height 
from  15-3  to  17  hands  and  in  weight  from  1600  to  2300 
pounds.     As  a  rule  they  show  a  little  less  weight  than  the 


304 


Effective  Farming 


Belgians  or  the   Shires,  but   more   than 
The  Percheron  is  of  the  true  draft  form. 


Fig.   119.  —  Percheron  stallion. 


Clydes  or  Suffolks. 
Feather,  or  the  long 
hair  about  the  fet- 
locks, is  not  found 
in  the  animals  of 
this  breed.  The 
head  is  refined  in  ap- 
pearance, with  good 
width  between  the 
eyes ;  the  ears  are 
rather  small  and  are 
carried  erect ;  the 
neck  is  of  moderate 
length  and  shows 
less    arch    than    is 

found  in  some  of  the  other  draft  breeds.     The  action  is  true, 

strong,  and  snappy.     The  usual  colors  are  gray  and  black,  but 

often   bay,    brown, 

and    chestnut    are 

found. 

Clydesdale. — The 

native  home  of  the 

Clydesdale     (Fig. 

120)  isintheCounty 

Lanack  in  the  Val 

ley   of   the   Clyde, 

Scotland.     Clydes- 
dales   range    in 

height   from   16  to 

17    hands    and    in 

weight    from    1800 

to     2200     pounds. 

Compared  with  Per- 

cherons,    they    are 

somewhat  longer  of 


Fig.  120.  —  Clydesdale  stallion. 


Horses 


305 


leg  and  lighter  and  longer  of  body.  Three  features  made 
prominent  by  the  breeders  of  these  animals  serve  to  make  the 
Clydes  rather  distinctive.  These  are  color,  feather  on  the 
legs,  and  action.  Bay  or  brown  are  the  colors  most  desired. 
Formerly  some  of  the  animals  were  black,  gray,  or  chestnut, 
but  in  1827  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society  ruled  that  only 
bay  or  brown  animals  could  compete  for  prizes  in  the  shows. 
Naturally  this  caused  breeders  to  choose  individuals  of  these 
colors  for  mating  and,  as  a  result,  most  of  the  animals  now 
seen  are  either  bay  or  brown.  The  breeders  desire,  also,  a 
white  blaze  on  the  face  and  white  on  one  or  more  of  the  feet. 
The  feather  on  the  legs  is  very  characteristic  of  the  breed. 
This  is  the  long  silky  hairs  that  grow  on  the  back  of  the  legs 
below  the  knees  and  hocks.  In  action  the  animals  are  un- 
equaled  by  those 
of  the  other  draft 
breeds,  some  horse- 
men claiming  that 
the  breeders  lay  too 
much  stress  on  this 
quality. 

Shire.  —  A  native 
of  England,  the 
Shire  (Fig.  121),  is 
the  result  of  cross- 
ing the  native  mares 
there  and  stallions 
brought  from  Nor- 
mandy and  Flan- 
ders. In  general  appearance  Shire  horses  resemble  Clydes,  as 
they  are  usually  bays  or  browns,  have  white  markings  on  the 
face  and  legs,  and  feather  on  the  legs.  The  stalHons  range  in 
height  from  16  to  17-2  hands  and  in  weight  from  1800  to 
2400  pounds.  The  animals  are  low-set  and  the  body  is  of 
good  width,  depth,  and  length,  with  heavily  muscled  shoulders 


Fig.  121.  — Shire  stallion. 


306 


Effective  Farming 


and  thighs.  The  head  of  many  of  the  animals  is  incHned  to 
be  a  Httle  plain  with  a  shght  lack  in  width  of  forehead  and 
a  coarseness  about  the  muzzle.  The  nose  is  apt  to  be  Roman 
which,  if  not  too  pronounced,  is  a  feature  desired  by  the 
breeders.  In  action  the  gait  is  a  little  sluggish,  especially  in 
the  trot.     Usually,  however,  the  animals  are  good  at  the  walk 

and    the    stride    is 
long  and  straight. 

Belgian.  —  The 
native  home  of  this 
horse  (Fig.  122),  as 
the  name  implies, 
is  Belgium.  The 
animals  are  the  re- 
sult of  the  selection 
and  mating  of  the 
native  horses  of 
Flanders,  no  out- 
siders having  been 
used  in  the  im- 
provement. Bel- 
gian horses  are  the 
heaviest  of  the  draft 
breeds,  the  stallions 
ranging  in  weight 
from  1800  to  2500 
pounds  and  stand- 
ing from  16  to  17  hands  high.  The  animals  have  deep,  thick 
bodies,  and  short  legs  that  are  free  from  feather.  The  neck  is 
short  and  thick  and  carries  a  high  crest,  the  latter  being  a  pro- 
nounced feature.  In  action  some  judges  criticize  the  animals 
as  being  slow  and  sluggish  in  the  walk  with  too  short  a  stride. 
They  are,  however,  usually  good  at  the  trot,  going  true  and 
straight.  Chestnut,  bay,  and  roan  are  the  prevailing  colors; 
sometimes  black  or  gray  is  seen. 


Fig.  122.  —  Belgian  mare. 


I 


Horses 


307 


Suffolk.  —  The  smallest  of  draft  horses  is  the  Suffolk  (Fig. 
123),  a  native  of  Suffolk  County  in  eastern  England.  The 
animals  range  in  height  from  15-2  to  16-2  hands  and  in  weight 
from  1700  to  1800  pounds.  On  account  of  their  small  size, 
they  are  better  suited  for  agricultural  purposes  than  for  heavy 
draft  work  in  the  cities.  In  general  appearance  the  animals 
show  a  full,  round  body  set  on  short,  clean  legs.  The  neck  is 
of  good  length  and  the  crest  is  very  well  developed.  The  body 
is  deep,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  the  rump  full  and  round.      The 


M 

■■■ 

Pw'Jm 

^^^^HR^  ^Z^H^H 

n^z 

^m  ■'      iw»F      '  j|^^i.1H 

,,-«# 

^fs^"^'  ■ ' 

Fig.  123.  —  Suffolk  stallion. 


legs  are  short  and  free  from  feather.  In  action  the  animals 
rank  next  to  the  Clydes.  Chestnut  is  the  characteristic  color, 
light  chestnut  being  preferred  to  dark. 

166.  The  heavy-harness  breeds.  —  Hackney,  French  Coach, 
German  Coach,  and  Cleveland  Bay  are  the  heavy-harness  breeds 
found  in  America.  These,  as  stated  previously,  are  the  show 
horses  of  the  parks. 

Hackney.  —  The  breed  known  as  the  Hackney  (Fig.  124) 
originated  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  York,  England. 
The  foundation  stock  was  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Turkish  stallions 


308 


Effective  Farming 


crossed  with  native  mares.  In  conformation  the  animals  are 
rather  short-legged  and  broad-bodied  with  a  level  back  and  well 
muscled  loins.  The  head  is  neat  and  clean,  the  neck  beau- 
tifully curved,  the  shoulders  sloping,  and  neatly  joined  to  the 
neck.  They  are  among  the  most  beautiful  horses  in  the  world. 
In  height  they  vary  from  less  than  14  hands  to  something  over 
16  hands.  Three  classes  are  recognized  in  England;  those 
under  14  hands  are  classed  as  ponies,  those  from  14  to  15  hands 


Fig.  124.  —  Irving  Model,  1090.  A  Hackney  pony  stallion,  for  which  $5000 
was  paid  and  $15,000  afterwards  refused.  Champion  Hackney  pony  stallion 
of  the  National  Horse  Show,  1915. 


as  cobs,  those  15  hands  and  over  as  carriage  horses.  In  weight 
the  largest  Hackney  seldom  exceeds  1250  pounds.  The  action 
is  high,  quick,  and  elastic  and  the  knees  and  hocks  are  usually 
well  flexed.  Individual  animals,  no  matter  how  good  their 
other  qualities  may  be,  if  they  lack  in  action,  are  discriminated 
against  by  breeders  and  purchasers.  Chestnut,  bay,  black, 
gray,  roan,  and  buckskin  are  the  usual  colors,  chestnut  pre- 
dominating. 


I 


Horses 


309 


French  Coach.  —  The  name  French  Coach  is  appHed  to  this 
breed  in  America,  but  in  France,  where  the  animals  are  native, 
the  name  Demi-Sang,  meaning  half-blood,  is  used.  The 
breed  dates  back  to  the  seventh  century  when  by  order  of 
Louis  XIV,  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Thoroughbred  stallions  were 
imported  into  France  and  crossed  on  the  best  saddle  mares 
of  Normandy.  The  first  colts  were  termed  half-bloods,  which 
accounts  for  the  name,  Demi-Sang.  Compared  with  the 
Hackneys  the  French  Coach  horses  are  a  little  less  smooth 
and  symmetrical,  but  are  larger  in  body  and  bone  and  better 
muscled.  In  action  the  trot  is  not  so  high  nor  snappy,  but  the 
stride  is  more  pow- 
erful and  longer. 
The  height  ranges 
from  15  to  16  hands 
and  the  weight 
from  1200  to  1350 
pounds.  The  pre- 
vailing colors  are 
bay  and  brown,  al- 
though black  and 
chestnut  are  some- 
times seen. 

German  Coach.  — 
The  name  German 
Coach  (Fig.  125)  is 
applied  in  America 
to  any  coach  horse 

imported  from  Germany.  In  that  country  there  are  several 
breeds  of  coach  horses,  each  with  a  separate  registration  society. 
Some  of  these  breeds  are  Oldenburg,  Hanoverian,  Holstein,  and 
East  Friesland.  As  might  be  inferred,  the  coach  horses  coming 
to  the  United  States  from  Germany  are  variable  in  size  and 
conformation.  They  range  in  height  from  15-2'  to  17  hands 
and  in  weight  from  1300  to  1500  pounds.     Usually,  the  animals 


German  Coach  stallion. 


310  Effective  Farming 

are  larger  than  those  of  the  French  Coach  breed,  the  body 
being  heavier  and  longer.  In  action  they  lack  the  height 
and  stylishness  of  the  Hackney,  but  the  stride  is  somewhat 
longer.  The  prevailing  colors  are  bay  and  brown,  although 
black  is  not  uncommon, 

Cleveland  Bay.  —  The  breed  known  as  the  Cleveland  Bay 
originated  in  the  northeastern  part  of  England  and  it  is  thought 
that  the  animals  are  the  product  of  native  mares  crossed  with 
Thoroughbreds.  The  breed  is  not  especially  popular  in  America 
and  the  horses  are  seldom  seen  at  the  shows.  The  animals 
range  in  height  from  16  to  16-3  hands  and  in  weight  from 
1200  to  1550  pounds.  They  are  somewhat  more  upstanding 
and  larger  than  Hackneys,  have  good  quality,  and  strong  action 
that  lacks  somewhat  in  style.  The  color  is  always  some  shade 
of  bay,  shading  to  black  on  the  legs,  tail,  and  mane. 

167.  The  light-harness  breed.  —  The  only  breed  of  light- 
harness  horse  in  the  United  States  is  the  Standard-bred,  some- 
times known  as  the  American  Trotter. 

Standard-bred.  —  A  product  of  America,  the  Standard-bred 
(Fig.  126)  includes  both  trotters  and  pacers.  The  original 
stock  was  produced  by  native  mares  crossed  with  Thorough- 
breds. The  object  in  view  was  speed  performance  and,  as 
might  be  expected,  the  type  is  not  at  all  uniform.  The  animals 
range  in  height  from  14  to  16  hands  and  in  weight  from  800  to 
1100  pounds.  A  distinguishing  characteristic  is  good  action. 
Whether  at  trot  or  pace,  the  stride  is  long  and  rapid  and  the 
gait  true  and  level.  Bay  and  brown  are  the  most  common 
colors,  but  many  other  colors  are  found  in  the  breed. 

Standard-bred  horses  have  been  developed  because  of  the 
interest  of  Americans  in  harness  races.  The  history  of  the 
breed  extends  back  to  Colonial  times  when  light  horses  were 
imported  and  bred  in  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  North  and 
South  Carohna.  Several  families  of  the  breed  have  been 
developed,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Hambletonian, 
Mambrino,    Morgan,    Clay,    Blue    Bull,    and    Pilot.     Many 


Horses  311 

notable  records  have  been  made  on  the  track  by  representatives 
of  the  breed. 

168.  The  saddle-horse  breeds.  —  The  Thoroughbred,  the 
American  saddle  horse,  and  the  Arabian  are  the  saddle-horse 
breeds  represented  in  America. 

Thoroughbred.  —  The  English  running  horse,  the  Thorough- 
bred  (Fig.   127),  originated  in  the  southern  part  of  England, 


Fig.  126.  —  Standard-bred  horse. 

and  is  the  result  of  crossing  the  light-weight  native  mares  of 
that  region  and  the  stallions  of  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Turkish 
blood.  Thoroughbreds  range  in  height  from  15  to  16  hands 
and  in  weight  from  900  to  1200  pounds.  In  general  appearance 
they  are  somewhat  angular.  They  have  fine,  lean  heads 
that  possess  much  quality.  The  chest  is  often  narrow,  but 
it  carries  good  depth.  The  back  and  loins  are  very  well  mus- 
cled and  have  great  driving  power.     The  action  in  desirable 


312 


Effective  Farming 


Fro.  127.  T—  A  Thoroughbred  horse. 


specimens  is  very- 
straight,  free,  and 
easy.  In  color  the 
animals  vary  con- 
siderably, the  most 
popular  colors  being 
bay  and  brown,  al- 
though chestnut, 
black,  sorrel,  gray, 
and  roan  are  often 
seen. 

American  sad- 
dlers.— As  the  name 
indicates,  this  sad- 
dle horse  (Fig.  128) 
originated  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  the  result  of  crossing  native  mares  and  Thorough- 
breds. Horses  used  under  the  saddle  have  always  been  popular 
in  the  South  and  it  is  that  section  of  the  country  to  which 
credit  must  be  given 
for  the  American 
saddle-horse  breed. 
Gay  has  well  de- 
scribed the  animals 
as  follows : 

"Since  their 
foundation,  saddle 
horses  have  been 
selected  to  a  model, 
as  well  as  a  per- 
formance, standard. 
They  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the 
following  charac- 
ters:    an    Upstand-  Fig.  12s.  — American  saddle  horse. 


Horses 


313 


ing  horse  of  most  symmetrical  and  beautifully  molded  form,  a 
well-proportioned,  blood-like  head,  the  features  of  which  are 
most  defined,  an  intelligent  countenance,  and  an  exceptionally 
long,  shapely  and  supple  neck,  on  which  the  head  is  set  in  a 
lofty,  graceful  manner.  The  two  ends  are  the  most  character- 
istic parts  of  the  saddle-bred  horse,  the  long,  level  croup  and 
unusually  high-set  and  proudly-carried  tail  balancing  the  lofty 
carriage  of  head,  in  compliance  with  the  Kentuckian's  idea  of 
'  Head  up  and  tail  a-risin'.'  An  extreme  degree  of  quality, 
finish  and  style,  with  a  rich  bay,  brown,  chestnut,  or  black 
color,  usually  moderately  and  evenly  marked  with  white, 
complete  a  beautiful  picture  horse.  The  way  of  going  was 
formerly  distinguished  by  the  rack,  but  with  the  increasing 
favor  shown  the  walk-trot-canter  horse  the  rack  has  been 
omitted  in  many  representatives  of  this  breed.  The  trot  is  quite 
frequently  marked 
by  more  action  than 
is  usually  required 
of  saddle  horses, 
and  is,  in  fact,  well 
suited  to  harness 
performance.  The 
highest  class  saddle- 
bred  horse  is  a  show 
horse  in  every  sense 
of  the  word,  whether 
under  saddle  or 
harness." 

Arabian  horses. — 
The  native  home  of 
this  horse  (Fig.  129) 
is  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  where  the  animals  have  been  bred 
for  a  long  time  by  the  migratory  tribes  that  inhabit  this  region. 
So  scattered  are  these  tribes  that  little  is  known  about  the 
ancestry  of  the  animals.     True  it  is,  however,  that  they  have 


Fig.  129.  — Arabian  stallion,  Cibolo,  134. 


314  Effective  Farming 

followed  true  lines  of  breeding  that  have  given  Arabian  horses 
of  to-day  beauty,  style,  stamina,  and  endurance  that  is  not 
excelled  by  any  other  breed.  Arabian  horses  have  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  improvement  of  other  breeds.  They 
were  used  extensively  for  improving  the  Thoroughbred  and 
the  Hackney  and,  to  somewhat  less  extent,  the  French  Coach 
and  the  German  Coach  horses. 

Regarding  the  height  and  weight  of  Arabians,  H.  K.  Bush- 
Brown,  Secretary  of  the  Arabian  Horse  Club  of  America, 
states :  "  Horses  of  the  Maneghi-Hadruji  family  of  Arabs 
are  the  largest,  sometimes  attaining  16  hands,  but  usually 
ranging  from  15  to  15-2  hands.  Other  pure-bred  Arabs  are 
from  14  to  15  hands.  They  weigh  from  850  to  1000  pounds 
and  as  they  are  very  compactly  built  they  are  heavy  for  their 
inches  and  seem  larger  than  they  are." 

The  Arabian  is  a  symmetrical,  stylish  horse.  The  head  is 
broad  and  high,  the  ears  small  and  well  set,  the  nostrils  large, 
the  neck  of  good  length  and  well  shaped.  The  body  is  shorter 
than  that  of  the  Thoroughbred  ;  the  ribs  are  well  covered  with 
flesh  and  spring  out  from  the  spine  with  a  graceful,  symmetrical 
curve.  The  animals  have  one  less  vertebra  than  any  of  the 
other  breeds,  which  is  an  advantage  in  carrying  weight  in  the 
saddle. 

169.  Ponies.  —  The  small  size  of  the  animals  of  the  pony 
breeds  is  no  doubt  due  in  a  large  measure  to  adverse  climatic 
conditions  and  scanty  food  supply.  Ponies  as  bred  to-day  are 
kept  to  their  diminutive  size  by  careful  selection  and  breeding. 
The  three  chief  breeds  are  the  Shetland,  the  Welsh,  and  the 
Hackney.  In  America  certain  groups  of  ponies  not  recognized 
as  breeds  are  the  familiar  bronchos,  mustangs,  and  Indian 
ponies  of  the  western  plains. 

Shetland  ponies.  —  The  Shetland  is  a  native  of  the  Shetland 
Islands,  a  group  of  islands  north  of  Scotland  where  the  winters 
are  long  and  severe  and  the  feed  scanty.  In  size  Shetlands 
range  from  30  to  46  inches  and  in  weight  from  about  325  to 


Horses  315 

385  pounds.  Small  size,  of  course,  is  desired  and,  for  this 
reason,  the  registry  associations  discriminate  against  animals 
over  a  certain  height.  The  association  in  Scotland  will  not 
register  an  individual  that  is  over  42  inches  high ;  in  America 
those  up  to  46  inches  may  be  registered.  Shetland  ponies 
have  the  general  appearance  of  a  very  small,  chunky  draft 
horse.  A  wide  variation  in  color  is  found,  bay,  brown,  black, 
chestnut,  and  gray  being  rather  common  colors.  Many  have 
white  markings.  Shetlands  are  very  desirable  for  children, 
being  docile  and  easily  controlled. 

Welsh  ponies.  —  This  breed  of  ponies  is  a  native  of  Wales. 
The  animals  are  somewhat  larger  than  the  Shetlands,  ranging 
from  11  to  13  hands.  In  conformation  they  are  of  the  Ught- 
horse  type.  In  temperament  they  are  more  active  than  the 
Shetlands  and  less  desirable  for  young  children.  The  ponies 
are  extensively  used  for  polo  purposes. 

Hackney  ponies.  —  Any  small  Hackney  horse  is  known  as  a 
Hackney  pony,  size  being  the  only  distinguishing  difference 
between  the  horse  and  the  pony.  A  Hackney  pony  is  shown 
in  Fig.  124. 

Bronchos  and  Indian  ponies.  —  The  American  ponies  of  the 
western  plains  are  thought  to  be  descendants  of  horses  that 
were  lost  by  the  early  explorers.  These  ponies  have  a  remark- 
able capacity  for  hard  work  under  the  saddle.  Formerly 
they  were  much  used  as  cow  ponies,  but  in  recent  years  larger 
horses  have  been  preferred  for  this  purpose.  Many  of  the 
pony  mares  have  been  crossed  with  larger  stallions  and  the 
offspring,  which  are  somewhat  larger  than  the  ponies,  have 
been  found  useful  as  tough  riding  and  driving  horses. 

170.  Market  classes  of  horses  and  mules.  —  At  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  Buffalo,  Boston,  New  York, 
and  some  other  cities,  there  are  large  horse  and  mule  markets 
where  the  animals  offered  for  sale  are  grouped  in  certain  classes 
based  on  such  qualities  as  soundness,  conformation,  quality, 
condition,  action,  age,  color,  education,  and  general  appear- 


316 


Effective  Farming 


ance.     An  exhaustive  study  of  the  market  classes  of  horses 

and  mules  was  made  a  few  years  ago  by  R.  C.  Obrecht,  of  the 

University  of  Illinois,  and  published  as  Bulletin   122  of  the 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Illinois.     Table  XI,  which 

follows,  is  from  this  bulletin,  and  will  be  found  valuable  for 

reference. 

TABLE  XI 

Market  Classes  of  Horses  and  Mules  with  Limits  in  Height 

AND  Weight 


Classes 


Draft  horses    . 
Chunks       .     . 

Wagon  horses 

Carriage  horses 
Road  horses    . 

Saddle  horses . 


Mining  mules 
Cotton  mules 
Sugar  mules 
Farm  mules 
Draft  mules 


Sub-classes 


Light  draft  .  . 
Heavy  draft  .  . 
Loggers  .... 

{Eastern  and  export 
chunks 
Farm  chunks  . 
Southern  chunks . 
{Expressers  .     .     . 
Delivery  wagon    . 
Artillery  horses    . 
Fire  horses . 
r  Coach     .     . 
\  Cobs .     .     . 
Park  horses 
ICab    .     .     . 
Runabout   . 
Roadster     . 
Five-gaited  Saddler 
Three-gaited   j  Light 
Saddler         [  Heavy 
I  [Light    1 

Hunters  <j  Middle  )   . 

{  Heavy  J 
Cavalry  horses 
Polo  ponies 


Height 

HANDS 


15-3  to  16-2 
16  to  17-2 
16-1  to  17-2 

15      to  16 

15      to  15-3 
15      to  15-3 
15-3  to  16-2 
15      to  16 
15-1  to  16 
15      to  17-2 
15-1  to  16-1 
14-1  to  15-1 
15      to  15-3 
15-2  to  16-1 
14-3  to  15-2 
15      to  16 
15      to  16 

14-3  to  16 


15-2  to  16-1 

15  to  15-3 
14      to  14-2 
12      to  16 
13-2  to  15-2 

16  to  17 
15-2  to  16 
16      to  17-2 


Weight 

POUNDS 


1600  to  1750 
1750  to  2200 
1700  to  2200 

1300  to  1550 


1200  to 

800  to 

1350  to 

1100  to 

1050  to 

1200  to 

1100  to 

900  to 

1000  to 

1050  to 

900  to 

900  to 

900  to 


1400 
1250 
1500 
1400 
1200 
1700 
1250 
1150 
1150 
1200 
1050 
1150 
1200 


900  to  1200 


1000  to  1250 


950  to 
850  to 
600  to 
750  to 

1150  to 
900  to 

1200  to 


1100 
1000 
1350 
1100 
1300 
1250 
1600 


Horses  317 

171.  Breaking  and  training  colts.^  —  The  future  value  and 
usefulness  of  a  colt  depends  largely  on  whether  or  not  he  is 
broken  and  trained  so  that  he  is  safe  to  handle  in  the  stable 
and  on  the  road  and  will  obey  orders  of  the  rider  or  driver 
promptly.  The  work  of  breaking  and  training  should  be  done 
when  the  animals  are  young,  for  old  horses  are  much  more 
difficult  to  train  than  colts.  The  usual  plan  is  to  teach  the  colt 
to  stand  tied  and  to  lead  before  he  is  weaned  and  to  break  him 
to  harness  and  saddle  between  the  ages  of  two  and  three  years. 

Teaching  the  colt  to  stand  tied.  —  The  first  step  is  to  teach 
the  colt  to  stand  tied.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
halter  and  ropes.  First,  place  a  halter  on  the  animal,  double 
a  four-foot  rope,  put  the  loop  under  the  tail  as  a  crupper,  make 
three  twists  in  the  rope,  bring  the  two  ends  forward,  and  tie 
them  together  in  front  of  the  chest.  Next,  tie  a  rope  loosely 
about  the  body  back  of  the  withers  and  knot  it  on  both  sides  to 
the  crupper  rope.  With  these  ropes  in  position  pass  a  twelve- 
foot  rope  through  the  halter  ring  and  tie  one  end  to  the  crupper 
rope  at  the  breast  of  the  animal  and  hitch  the  other  end  to  a 
strong  post,  leaving  about  three  feet  of  slack. 

Gentling  the  colt.  —  While  tied  the  colt  should  be  petted  and 
rubbed  on  the  sides,  hindquarters,  and  legs.  This  operation 
is  termed  gentling.  Hold  the  head-stall  in  one  hand  and  with 
the  other  pet  and  rub  the  head  and  neck.  Then,  gentle  the 
back,  the  sides,  and  lastly,  the  legs.  In  gentling  the  hind 
parts  make  use  of  a  stick  about  four  feet  long  on  one  side  of 
which  is  a  burlap  bag  wrapped  and  tied.  First,  let  the  colt 
smell  the  stick,  then  rub  the  padded  part  over  the  legs  and 
on  the  body.  If  the  colt  kicks  do  not  beat  him,  allow  him  to 
examine  the  stick  again,  then  rub  him  as  before.  The  gentling 
should  be  continued  until  the  colt  can  be  approached  from 
either  side  and  rubbed  all  over  his  body. 

The  second  lesson  should  be  the  same  as  the  first,  teaching 
him  to  stand  tied  and  to  be  rubbed  and  petted. 
1  Based  on  Farmers'  Bulletin  667. 


318  Effective  Farming 

Teaching  the  colt  to  lead.  —  At  the  third  lesson  he  should  be 
broken  to  the  lead.  To  do  this,  loosen  the  rope  from  the  post, 
step  away  from  the  colt,  tell  him  to  come  and  follow  the  com- 
mand with  a  pull  on  the  rope.  As  soon  as  he  steps  forward 
pet  him,  then  step  away  and  repeat  the  command.  Soon  he 
will  follow  without  the  pull  on  the  rope.  About  half  an  hour 
is  long  enough  for  this  lesson. 

The  next  lesson  should  be  started  with  the  crupper  rope  in 
position,  but  it  should  be  removed  after  a  brief  workout  and 
the  halter  used  alone.  Lessons  without  the  crupper  rope  should 
be  continued  until  the  colt  has  learned  to  lead  well. 

Handling  the  feet  of  the  colt.  —  While  breaking  a  colt  to  lead, 
it  is  well  to  accustom  him  to  having  his  feet  handled  and  also 
to  trim  the  hoofs.  Careful  trimming  of  the  feet  of  colts  often 
avoids  such  trouble  as  knock-knees,  bow-legs,  pigeon-toes, 
cow-hocks,  interfering,  and  paddling.  Begin  the  work  of 
handling  the  feet  with  the  near  front  foot.  Tie  a  rope  around 
the  pastern,  grasp  the  rope  close  to  the  foot,  push  against  the 
shoulder  of  the  colt,  and  at  the  same  time  quickly  lift  the  foot, 
rub  it  gently,  and  let  it  down.  Repeat  this  operation  several 
times  after  which  trim  and  level  the  hoof.  To  raise  a  hind 
foot,  put  a  rope  on  the  pastern,  draw  the  foot  forward,  and 
smooth  it  with  the  hand.  Repeat  this  several  times  and 
follow  by  bringing  the  foot  to  the  shoeing  position  and  trim- 
ming the  hoof. 

Teaching  the  colt  the  commands  used  in  driving.  —  After  a  colt 
has  been  broken  to  lead  he  should  be  broken  to  drive  in  the 
harness.  This  means  to  go  forward,  to  stop,  to  rein  to  right 
or  left,  and  to  back.  A  bitting  harness  may  be  used  to  accus- 
tom the  colt  to  bit  and  harness.  This  consists  of  an  open 
bridle  and  snaffle  bit,  check  and  side  reins,  surcingle,  and 
crupper.  For  the  first  lesson  leave  side  and  check  reins  loose 
and  turn  the  colt  into  a  small  paddock  for  an  hour.  On  the 
next  day  tighten  the  reins  a  little  and  turn  him  loose  again 
for  an  hour.     On  the  third  day  put  on  the  driving  Unes,  take 


Horses  319 

a  position  behind  him  with  the  hnes  in  hand,  and  have  an 
assistant  lead  him.  As  soon  as  he  becomes  accustomed  to 
the  driver,  do  without  the  assistant.  Drive  the  colt  for  half 
an  hour  in  a  paddock  or  lane  where  there  are  no  other  horses. 
This  lesson  is  to  teach  him  to  go  forward,  nothing  else.  Use 
the  whip,  cUck  to  him,  or  say  ''  get  up  "  to  let  him  know  what 
is  wanted.  It  is  necessary  to  drive  in  a  circle  both  to  the 
right  and  the  left  as  this  makes  the  colt  familiar  with  objects 
on  both  sides  of  him.  Often  an  animal  will  be  accustomed  to 
objects  on  one  side,  but  will  be  frightened  when  thej^  are  seen 
for  the  first  time  on  the  other. 

In  the  next  lesson  the  colt  should  be  driven  for  a  while,  then 
taught  to  stop  at  the  command  "  whoa."  To  stop  a  colt  say 
''  whoa  "  loud  enough  to  be  heard  plainly  and  follow  with  a 
pull  on  the  reins.  In  making  this  pull,  hold  one  of  the  reins 
tight  and  pull  with  the  other,  then  relax.  If  the  colt  does  not 
stop,  repeat  the  command  and  the  pull.  As  soon  as  he  has 
learned  to  stop  in  this  way,  teach  him  to  stop  by  giving  the 
command  only,  not  the  pull. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  next  lesson,  the  ''  get  up  "  and 
"  whoa  "  commands  should  be  reviewed,  after  which  he  should 
be  taught  to  back.  To  do  this,  drive  him  a  few  steps  forward, 
stop  him,  give  the  command  ''  back  "  followed  by  a  pull  on 
the  lines.  If  he  backs  pet  him  and  repeat  the  command.  Do 
not  keep  up  a  steady  pull  on  the  lines,  as  this  may  cause  him 
to  take  the  bit  and  forge  ahead.  Make  the  lesson  short,  give 
another  the  next  day,  and  continue  the  lessons  until  he  has 
been  well  trained  to  drive  in  bitting  harness. 

The  work  harness  is  next  substituted  for  the  bitting  harness. 
Fasten  the  traces  and  breeching  together  loosely  at  first  and 
tighten  them  gradually  as  the  training  progresses. 

Driving  in  double  harness.  —  For  the  first  lesson  in  double 
harness,  hitch  the  colt  with  a  gentle  horse  and  drive  them  for 
half  an  hour  without  a  wagon.  At  the  next  lesson  the  first 
step  is  to  make  him  familiar  with  the  wagon.     Lead  him  up 


320  Effective  Farming 

to  it,  let  him  smell  it,  rattle  it,  and  lead  him  around  it.  Then, 
lead  the  team  horse  to  his  place  at  the  tongue,  bring  the  colt 
up,  attach  the  lines,  the  neck  yoke,  and  the  traces,  and  hitch 
the  two  animals  together.  Next,  have  an  assistant  take  the 
colt's  lead  rope.  Drive  a  few  steps  and  stop,  using  the  break 
to  hold  the  wagon  away  from  the  team.  Have  the  assistant 
pet  the  colt  to  quiet  him  and  when  he  is  quiet  start  again,  this 
time  going  a  little  farther  than  the  first  time.  As  soon  as  he 
gets  over  being  frightened,  drive  in  a  circle  a  few  times.  Stop 
occasionally  and  quiet  him  and  when  he  goes  well  have  the 
assistant  get  into  the  wagon.  Take  only  a  short  drive  and 
when  the  colt  shows  signs  of  fear,  stop  and  let  him  examine 
whatever  may  have  frightened  him.  Keep  up  the  lessons, 
taking  a  longer  ride  each  day  until  the  colt  is  broken. 

Driving  in  single  harness.  —  Put  the  colt  in  single  harness, 
using  an  open  bridle,  lead  him  to  the  cart  and  allow  him  to 
examine  it.  A  two- wheel  breaking  cart  with  long  shafts  is 
best  for  this  purpose.  Have  an  assistant  draw  the  cart  around 
the  colt  a  few  times  and  after  he  shows  no  signs  of  fear,  raise 
the  shafts  and  draw  the  cart  up  to  place.  After  he  has  been 
hitched,  get  into  the  seat  and  have  the  assistant  lead  the  animal 
for  a  while.  Later  drive  without  the  aid  of  an  assistant.  Start 
the  colt  quietly,  drive  a  few  steps,  stop  and  pet  him.  Keep 
this  up  for  several  lessons  until  the  animal  can  be  driven  quietly. 

Breaking  the  colt  to  ride.  —  When  a  colt  is  to  be  broken  to 
ride,  it  is  well  first  to  break  him  to  drive  both  single  and  double, 
then  break  him  to  ride.  Put  on  the  saddle  and  lead  him  around. 
Tie  him  up  for  a  while  and,  keeping  the  saddle  on,  turn  him 
into  a  paddock.  Next,  accustom  him  to  being  mounted  by 
getting  on  and  off  several  times.  After  he  is  accustomed  to 
the  mounting,  get  on  his  back  and  have  an  assistant  lead  him. 
As  soon  as  possible,  ride  him  without  the  aid  of  an  assistant. 
If  the  colt  gets  unruly,  pull  his  head  to  one  side,  and  do  not 
let  him  get  it  down.  Keep  up  the  lessons  until  he  will  go  for- 
ward, back,  stop,  and  so  on,  at  the  will  of  the  rider. 


Horses  321 

172.  Feeds  for  horses.  —  Oats  is  the  grain  used  most  ex- 
tensively in  the  United  States  for  horses,  but  it  is  becoming 
so  expensive  in  some  parts  of  the  country  that  there  is  a  con- 
stant demand  for  other  feeds  to  take  its  place.  Corn  is  most 
commonly  substituted  and  it  has  been  found  to  be  a  safe  and 
satisfactory  feed  when  used  in  the  correct  proportion.  At  the 
New  Hampshire  Station,  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  bran  and  one 
part  of  corn  was  found  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  oats.  Barley 
is  much  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Kafir  corn  is  used  in  the 
semi-arid  regions  of  the  country.  Factory  by-products  make 
good  feed  and  are  extensively  used.  Bran,  shorts,  gluten 
feed,  linseed  meal,  and  cottonseed  meal  are  often  included  in 
the  rations  for  horses. 

Timothy  and  prairie  hay  are  the  most  used  hays  for  horses, 
although  in  many  sections  where  these  are  not  produced  others 
are  substituted.  At  the  North  Dakota  Station,  brome-grass 
hay  was  found  to  give  as  good  results  as  timothy.  At  the 
Utah  Station,  alfalfa  when  judiciously  fed  was  found  to  be 
satisfactory.  When  feeding  alfalfa  hay,  less  grain  is  required 
in  the  ration  than  if  timothy  hay  is  fed.  At  the  Illinois  Station, 
from  20  to  22  per  cent  less  hay  was  required  to  maintain  the 
weight  of  horses  fed  with  alfalfa  than  those  fed  with  timothy. 
At  the  same  station,  a  slight  difference  was  observed  in  favor 
of  clover  hay  over  timothy  hay. 

In  Table  XII  are  given  examples  of  rations  actually  fed  to 
horses  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  there  is  a  predominance  of  oats  and  corn  in  the  rations. 

173.  Time  to  water  horses.^  —  The  proper  time  to  water  horses 
is  a  matter  concerning  which  opinions  differ.  Many  feeders 
believe  that  they  should  be  watered  before  feeding,  while 
others  are  equally  certain  that  feeding  should  precede  watering. 
Some  extended  experiments  have  been  recently  made  in  Europe 
which  have  led  to  definite  conclusions,  and  seem  to  have 
reached  the  truth  in  the  matter. 

1  C.  F.  Langworthy  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  170. 
y 


322 


Effective  Farming 


TABLE    XII 
Rations  for  Horses 


Kinds  of  Horses 


ARMY    HORSES 

United  States : 
Cavalry  .     . 

Artillery 


Mules      .     .     . 

HORSES    WITH 
LIGHT   WORK 

Driving  horse, 
Wyoming  Sta- 
tion 

Carriage  horse 

Fire         company 
horses : 

Boston,  Mass  . 
Chicago,  111.     . 

HORSES   WITH 
MODERATE   WORK 

Express  horses : 

Richmond,  Va., 
summer    .     . 


Jersey        City, 
N.  J.    .     .     . 


Boston,  Mass. 

Cab  horses : 
Washington, 
D.  C.  .     .     . 

San   Francisco, 
Cal.     .     .     . 


o 


Lb 
1,050 
1,125 
1,025 

1,200 
1,050 

1,400 
1,350 


1,400 


,325 


1,325 


1,200 


1,350 


Rations 


Lb. 

Oats,  12 
Hay,  14 

Oats,  12 
Hay,  14 

Oats,  9 
Hay,  14 


Alfalfa,  21.2c 
Straw,  3.2 


Oats,  10 
Hay,  12 


(Ground 
9.38 
Hay,  18 
/  Oats,  4 
I  Hay,  15 


Corn,  4.67 
Oats,  5.33 
Bran,  0.83 
Corn  meal,  4. 
Hay,  15 

Com,  2 
Oats,  19 
Bran,  1.5 
Hay,  9.5 
Corn,  12 
Oats,  5.25 
Hay,  20 

Oats,  10 
Corn,  5 
Hay,  23 

Oats,  8 
Hay,  16 


16 


Kinds  of  Horses 


Farm  horses : 


California  Sta- 
tion    .     .     . 


O 


Lb. 


1,000 


California    Sta- 
tion    .     .     . 

Wyoming    Sta- 
tion     .     . 

New  Hampshire 
Station     .     . 


New         Jersey 
Station     .     . 


Massachusetts 
Station     .     . 


Utah  Station 


Utah  Station 


Farm  mules,  Vir- 
ginia Station 

HORSES    WITH 
severe    WORK 

Truck   and   draft 

horses : 
Chicago,      111., 

daily    ration 
South    Omaha, 

Nebr.  .     .     . 


1,000 


1,000 


L,235 


1,000 


,100 


1,370 


1,325 


1,310 


1,500 
1,500 


Rations 


Lb. 

Alfalfa  hay,  12 
Wheat  hay,  11 
Crushed      bar- 
ley, 7 
Alfalfa  hay,  10 
Barley  hay,  12 
Cracked  corn,  7 
Alfalfa,  13.75 
Straw,  2.25 
Bran,  2 
Com,  6 
Gluten  meal,  6 
Hay,  10 
Hay,  6 
Bran  2^ 
Corn,  4? 
Dried  brewers' 

grain,  8^ 
Hay,  18 
Wheat  bran,  2 
Provender,  6  = 

crushed  corn, 

2.73 ;       oats, 

3.27 
Alfalfa  hay,  25 
Bran  and 

shorts  (1 :  1), 

10 
Timothy     hay, 

22.8 
Bran  and 

shorts  (1 :  1), 

10 

Hay,  15.2 
Corn,  10.5 
Corn        silage, 
10.5 


Oats,  7.5 
Hay,  20 
Oats,  15 
Hay,  12 


I 


Horses  323 

So  far  as  was  observed,  the  time  of  drinking  had  no  effect  on 
the  digestibiUty  of  a  ration  of  grain  and  hay.  When  hay  only 
was  fed  there  seemed  to  be  a  shght  advantage  in  watering  before 
feeding.  The  general  conclusion  was  drawn  that  horses  may 
be  watered  before,  during,  or  after  meals  without  interfering 
with  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  food.  All  these  methods 
of  watering  are  equally  good  for  the  horse,  and  each  of  them 
may  be  employed  according  to  circumstances.  It  is  obvious 
that  certain  circumstances  may  make  it  necessary  to  adopt 
one  or  the  other  method.  For  instance,  after  severe  loss  of 
water,  such  as  occurs  in  consequence  of  long-continued,  severe 
exertion,  the  animal  should  always  be  allowed  to  drink  before 
he  is  fed,  as  otherwise  he  will  not  feed  well. 

In  this  connection  it  is  worth  noting  that  many  American 
farmers  believe  that  watering  before  feeding  is  best.  Although 
all  methods  of  watering  seemed  in  these  tests  to  be  equally 
good  for  the  horse,  it  is  not  desirable  to  change  unnecessarily 
from  one  method  to  another.  Animals,  or  at  least  some  of 
them,  appear  to  be  not  altogether  indifferent  to  such  a  change. 
In  the  experiments  referred  to  above,  it  was  found  that  when- 
ever a  change  was  made  from  the  plan  of  watering  after  feeding 
to  that  of  watering  before,  the  appetite  fell  off  for  some  days ; 
not  that  the  horses  did  not  consume  the  whole  of  the  food 
given  to  them,  but  for  some  days  together  they  did  not  eat 
with  the  same  avidity  as  before,  and  took  a  longer  time  to 
consume  their  rations  completely.  A  similar  effect  was  not 
observed  when  the  change  was  from  watering  before  to  watering 
after  feeding,  or  from  watering  after  to  watering  during  meals, 
or  when  the  change  was  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  last. 
It  seems  best,  therefore,  to  avoid  sudden  and  unnecessary 
changes  in  the  method  of  watering. 

174.  Soundness  in  horses.  —  A  horse  with  a  disease  or  a 
vice  that  interferes  with  his  usefulness  or  makes  him  incapable 
of  reasonable  work  is  termed  unsound.  The  term  serviceably 
sound  is  often  used  to  indicate  horses  that  have  no  defects 


324  Effective  Farming 

that  make  them  unfit  for  the  use  for  which  they  are  sold.     In 

the  Chicago  horse  market,  this  term  has  been  abandoned,  as 

its   use   created   many  opportunities   for   controversy.     Some 

unsoundnesses  that  unfit  a  horse  for  hard  service  are  broken 

wind,  unsound  eyes,  side  bones,  ring  bones,  large  splints,  buck 

knees,  curbs,  spavins,  and  large  thoroughpins.     In  Table  XIII 

is  given  the  location  of  the  common  unsoundnesses  and  faults 

of  horses. 

TABLE   XIII 

Location  of  the  Common  Unsoundnesses  and  Faults  of  Horses 
Name                                                                       Location 

Unsound  eyes Head 

Wind  broken Body 

Poll  evil Head 

Fistula Withers 

Shoulder  sweeny Shoulder 

Collar  boil Shoulder 

Shoe  boil Elbow 

Knee  sprung Knee 

Splints Cannons 

Bowed  tendons Cannons 

Wind  gall Fetlock  joint 

Grease Fetlock  joint 

Ring  bones Pastern 

Side  bone Cornets 

Quittor Cornets 

Founder Feet 

Thrush Feet 

Quarter  crack Feet 

Toe  crack Feet 

Broken  ilium         •     .  Hips 

Knocked-down  hip Hips 

Hip  sweeny Hips 

Dislocated  patella Stifle 

Bone  spavin Hock 

Bog  spavin Hock 

Thoroughpin Hock 

Curb       Hock 

Capped  hock Hock 

175.    Determining  age  of  horses.  —  The  following  is  a  de- 
scription   of    the.  method    employed    in    determining    age   in 


Horses  325 

horses,  as  published  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

"  Until  a  horse  is  over  10  years  old  the  teeth  furnish  an  in- 
dication of  age  which  is  fairly  accurate.  In  estimating  the 
age  of  a  horse,  only  the  three  pairs  of  front  teeth  or  nippers 
on  each  jaw  are  considered.  Horses,  like  human  beings,  have 
two  sets  of  teeth ;  the  first  set,  known  as  milk  teeth,  being  re- 
placed by  permanent  teeth.  New  teeth  have  deep  cups,  or 
indentations,  at  their  centers.  As  the  teeth  wear  down  these 
cups  disappear. 

''  A  colt  does  not  usually  get  its  first  pair  of  nippers  until  it 
is  a  few  days  old,  but  has  all  three  pairs  by  the  time  it  is  6  to 
10  months  old.  Until  a  colt  is  3  years  old,  however,  its  general 
appearance  is  relied  upon  largely  to  indicate  its  age.  Follow- 
ing is  a  description  of  the  yearly  changes  which  ordinarily 
occur  in  the  teeth  of  a  horse. 

'*  One  year.  —  The  center  pair  of  milk  incisors,  known  as  the 
pinchers,  and  the  pair  next  to  them,  known  as  the  intermediates, 
are  well  through  the  gums  and  in  contact,  but  the  corner  pairs 
do  not  yet  meet  on  a  level. 

'^  Two  years.  —  The  pinchers  and  the  intermediates  indicate 
that  they  are  being  crowded  by  the  permanent  teeth,  as  they 
are  pushed  free  from  their  gums  at  the  base.  By  the  time  the 
colt  is  2^  years  old  the  middle  pinchers  should  be  through. 
The  permanent  teeth  are  much  larger  than  the  temporary  ones. 

''  Three  years.  —  The  middle  pinchers  are  large  enough  for 
use.  Their  deep  cups  show  plainly.  The  milk  intermediates 
are  about  to  be  shed. 

"  Four  years.  —  The  permanent  intermediates  appear  at 
3-J  years  and  are  ready  for  use  at  4.  The  corner  teeth  give 
evidence  that  the  permanent  corners  are  coming.  The  cups 
in  the  pinchers  are  about  one-third  gone.  (The  tusks,  or 
canine  teeth,  of  male  colts  may  appear  about  this  time.) 

"  Five  years.  —  The  temporary  corner  teeth  are  shed  at  4-J 
and  the  pernianent  ones  are  ready  to  use.     The  horse  has  now 


326  Effective  Farming 

what  is  known  as  a  full  mouth,  all  permanent  incisors  being 
ready  to  use.    The  cups  of  the  first  pair  are  about  two-thirds  gone. 

''  Six  years.  —  The  cups  in  the  center  pair  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared.    In  the  second  pair  they  are  about  two-thirds  gone. 

"Seven  years.  —  The  cups  from  the  second  pair  are  now 
gone.  There  is  a  notch  in  the  upper  corner  tooth  where  it 
overlaps  the  lower  one. 

'*  Eight  years.  —  The  cups  having  all  worn  out  of  the  lower 
nippers,  we  now  look  at  the  upper  jaw.  Although  cups  remain 
in  the  center  pair,  they  are  not  deep. 

"  Nine  years.  —  The  cups  in  the  center  pair  of  nippers  on  the 
upper  jaw  have  disappeared.  They  are  still  present  in  the 
other  two  pairs,  being  fairly  deep  in  the  corner  ones. 

"  Ten  years.  —  The  cups  are  worn  out  of  the  second  pair  on 
the  upper  jaw,  although  they  are  still  present  in  the  corner  pair. 

''  Older  horses.  —  At  11  years  all  of  the  cups  are  usually  worn 
out  of  the  incisors  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  some  other 
indication.  Estimation  of  age  may  now  be  based  upon  the 
angle  at  which  the  teeth  meet,  their  change  in  size  and  shape. 
As  the  horse  gets  older,  the  teeth  meet  more  and  more  at  an 
acute  angle;  that  is,  the  jaws  become  more  oblique.  As  the 
teeth  wear  down,  the  shape  of  the  worn  ends  changes  from  oval 
to  more  nearly  round  and,  finally,  in  an  aged  horse,  to  a  nearly 
triangular  form.  Sometimes  cups  are  cut  or  burned  in  the 
teeth  of  old  horses  to  make  their  mouths  resemble  those  of 
younger  animals.  This  practice,  known  as  '  Bishoping,'  may 
be  detected  if  the  shape  of  the  tooth  and  the  absence  of  the 
ring  of  enamel  which  surrounds  the  natural  cup  are  noted. 
After  a  horse  is  12  years  old  its  condition  is  more  important 
than  its  age  in  determining  values." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  the  height  of  horses  measured? 

2.  Describe  a  typical  draft  horse. 

3.  Why  is  good  knee  and  hock  action  so  much  desired  in  heavy- 
harness  horses? 


Horses 


327 


4.    What  quality  is  of  especial  importance  in  roadster  horses  ? 
5.'  What  gaits  must  a  five-gaited  saddler  show? 

6.  Describe  the  canter,  the  rack,  the  running  walk,  the  fox-trot, 
and  the  slow  pace. 

7.  Compare  the  Pereheron  and  the  Clydesdale  as  to  conformation. 

8.  Why  do  breeders  of  Hackney  horses  discriminate  against  horses 
that  lack  high  action? 

9.  Which  breeds  of  horses  originated  in  America? 

10.  In  determining  the  market  class  to  which  a  horse  belongs  what 
qualities  are  considered  ? 

11.  Which  grain  is  fed  most  extensively  to  horses  and  why  are  other 
feeds  sought  to  take  its  place? 

12.  Discuss  the  question  of  the  proper  time  to  water  horses. 

13.  What  is  meant  by  an  unsound  horse? 

14.  Name  some  unsoundnesses  that  unfit  a  horse  for  hard  service. 

15.  What  three  important  qualities  should  a  saddle  horse  possess? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Scoring  draft  horses.  —  Study  the  score-card  carefully.  The 
one  shown  here  is  used  by  Purdue  University,  Lafayette,  Indiana,  and 
is  an  exceptionally  good  one.  Notice  the  relative  weights  allowed  for 
general  appearance,  head  and  neck,  forequarters,  body,  hindquarters, 
and  action.  Read  the  list  of  qualifications  of  each  point  and  decide 
why  these  qualifications  are  desired  in  a  draft  horse. 

Score-card  —  Draft  Horses  for  Market 


Scale  op  Points 


Stand- 
ard 


Points 
Deficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


General  appearance  —  19  per  cent : 

1.  Height,  estimated    ....  hands;  actual    ..  .. 

hands 

2.  Weight,  over  16001b.,  estimated lb., 

actual lb.,  according  to  age 

3.  Form,    broad,    massive,    well    proportioned, 

blocky,  symmetrical 

4.  Quality,   refined;     bone  clean,   hard,   large, 

strong;    tendons  clean,  defined;    skin  and 
hair  fine ;   feather,  if  present,  silky    .     .     . 

5.  Temperament,  energetic ;  disposition  good    . 


328 


Effective  Farming 


Score-card  —  Draft  Horses  for  Market 

{Continited) 

Stand- 
ard 

Points 
Deficient 

Scale  of  Points 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 

Head  and  neck  —  9  per  cent : 

6.  Head,  lean,  proportionate  size ;  profile  straight 

1 

1 
1 

2 

1 

1 
2 

3 

1 
2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

8 

3 

2 
2 
2 
2 

1 

7.  Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried,  alert  . 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  same  color 

10.  Lower  jaw,  angles  wide,  clean 

11.  Muzzle,  neat;   nostrils  large,  open,  free  from 
discharge ;   lips  thin,  even,  firm    .... 

12.  Neck,    well    muscled,    arched ;     throatlatch 
clean ;   windpipe  large 

Forequarters  —  24  per  cent : 

13.  Shoulders,  moderately  sloping,  smooth,  snug, 
extending  into  back 

14.  Arm,  short,  strongly  muscled,  thrown  back, 
well  set 

15.  Forearm,  strongly  muscled,  wide,  clean    . 

16.  Knees,   deep,   straight,   wide,    strongly  sup- 
ported       

17.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  defined, 
set  back 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  . 

19.  Pasterns,  moderate  length,   sloping,  strong, 
clean 

20.  Feet,  large,  even  size,   sound;    horn  dense, 

waxy;    sole  concave;    bars  strong;    frog 
large,  elastic ;  heel  wide  and  one-fourth  to 
one-haK  the  lineal  length  of  toe   .     .     .     . 

21.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line 

from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot.     From  the  side,  a  perpendicular 
line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow 
joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee 
and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  the  hoof    . 
Body  —  9  per  cent : 

22.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 

23.  Ribs,  long,  well  sprung,  close ;  coupling  strong 

24.  Back,  straight,  broad,  strongly  muscled   .     . 

25.  Loins,  wide,  short,  thickly  muscled 

26.  Underline,  low ;   flanks  full 

Horses 


329 


Score-card  —  Draft  Horses  for  Market 

(Continued) 

Stand- 
ard 

Points 
Deficient 

Scale  of  Points 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 

Hindquarters  —  30  per  cent : 

27.  Hips,  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled  . 

2 

2 

1 

3 
2 
6 
2 

1 
2 

6 

3 

6 
3 

28.  Croup,  not  markedly  drooping,  wide,  heavily 
muscled 

29.  Tail,  stylishly  set  and  carried 

30.  Quarters,    deep,    broad,    heavily    muscled, 
thighs  strong 

31.  Gaskins,  long,  wide,  heavily  muscled   . 

32.  Hocks,  large,  clean,  strong,  wide,  well  set  . 

33.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  defined 

34.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  .     . 

35.  Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean  . 

36.  Feet,  large,  even  size,  sound;    horn  dense, 
waxy ;    sole  concave ;     bars  strong ;     frog 
large,  elastic ;     heel  wide,  and  one-fourth 
to  one-half  the  lineal  length  of  the  toe  . 

37.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot.     From  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in 
the  middle,  and  a  perpendicular  Hne  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel 
with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

Action  —  9  per  cent : 

38.  Walk,  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight 

39.  Trot,  free,  springy,  balanced,  straight .     .     . 

Total 

100 

With  a  draft  horse  before  you  mark  in  the  space  for  student's  score 
the  weight  you  think  should  be  given  to  each  point.  Seldom  will  two 
persons  score  an  animal  alike  in  all  points  or  even  in  total  score.  Two 
good  judges  may  differ  in  the  relative  worth  of  the  different  points,  but 
when  comparing  one  animal  with  another  they  are  likely  to  agree  as 
to  which  one  is  the  better. 

If  an  animal  is  nearly  perfect  in  any  point  do  not  make  a  deduction, 


330  Effective  Farming 

or  cut,  but  write  the  full  amount  in  the  space  provided.  If  a  point  is 
not  up  to  standard,  make  a  cut ;  write  what  you  think  the  animal  is 
worth  in  this  particular  point.  It  is  not  advisable  to  make  a  cut  of 
less  than  .25  and  seldom  will  an  animal  be  so  deficient  that  a  cut  of  half 
the  rating  of  the  point  will  be  made.  There  can  be  no  set  rule  for 
making  cuts,  because,  as  stated  previously,  two  judges  will  seldom  agree 
as  to  the  relative  value  of  a  point ;  consequently,  they  would  not  agree 
as  to  the  amount  the  point  should  be  cut.  After  all  the  points  have 
been  rated  add  the  numbers  representing  the  relative  weights ;  the 
sum  is  the  score  of  the  animal.  A  horse  that  scores  80  is  a  good  one  ; 
do  not  be  surprised  if  you  find  animals  scoring  less  than  this  amount. 

2.  Comparative  judging  of  draft  horses.  —  After  having  had  prac- 
tice in  scoring  draft  horses,  you  should  learn  to  do  comparative  judging 
—  that  is,  when  two  or  more  horses  are  placed  together  to  select  the 
best  individual,  the  next  best,  and  so  on,  without  the  aid  of  the  score- 
card.  To  do  this  proceed  as  follows :  Observe  the  general  method  of 
viewing  the  animals  as  given  when  scoring  them.  Study  the  horses 
by  making  comparisons  part  by  part.  For  example  study  the  general 
appearance  of  all  the  animals  and  determine  in  which  points  one  animal 
is  better  than  another  and  how  a  second  is  better  than  a  third.  Then, 
in  your  notebook,  designate  in  which  order  they  should  be  placed  in 
general  appearance,  stating  your  reasons  for  placing  them  thus.  Next, 
follow  the  same  plan  for  forequarters  and  so  on  through  the  list  on  the 
score-card.  With  your  notes  before  you,  taking  into  consideration  the 
relative  weights  of  the  different  points,  decide  which  horse  is  the  best, 
which  one  is  next  best,  and  so  on  until  you  have  them  placed  in  order 
of  merit. 

After  you  have  had  considerable  practice  in  judging  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  make  so  many  notes.  You  wiU  be  able  to  carry  in  mind 
the  relative  qualities  of  the  different  animals  and  decide  which  ones 
excel  in  the  most  points. 

3.  Judging  light  horses.  —  After  having  had  practice  in  judging 
heavy  horses  you  should  be  able  to  place  light  horses  in  order  of  merit 
by  comparing  the  different  qualities.  The  descriptions  of  the  light 
horses  of  the  different  types  have  been  given  on  previous  pages.  Study 
these  descriptions  and  the  score-card  for  light  horses  given  here^^nth 
and  place  the  horses  accordingly. 


I 


Horses 
Score-card  for  Light  Horses^ 


331 


Scale  of  Points  for  Gelding 

Per- 
fect 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

1.  Age 

General  appearance  —  12  points  : 

2.  Weight 

3.  Height 

4.  Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish      .     .     . 

5.  Quality,  bone  clean,  fine,  yet  indicating  sufiB- 

cient  substance  :  tendons  defined,  hair  and 
skin  fine 

4 
4 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

2 

1, 

2 

2 
2 
1 
3 

6 
4 





6.  Temperament,  active,  good  disposition     .     . 
Head  and  neck  —  6  points  : 

7.  Head,  lean,  straight 

8.  Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  even     . 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

10    Forehead   broad    full 

11.  Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and 
not  far  apart 

12.  Neck,  muscled  ;  crest  high ;  throat  latch  fine ; 

Forequarters  —  23  points  : 

13.  Shoulders,  long,  smooth,  well  muscled ;  oblique, 

extending  into  back  and  muscled  at  withers 

14.  Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

15.  Forearm   muscled,  long,  wide 

16.  Knees,  clean,  wide,  straight,  deep,  strongly 

supported 

17.  Cannons,  short,  wide ;   sinews  large,  set  back 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

19.  Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground  45°    .     . 

20.  Feet,   medium,    even    size,    straight;      horn 

dense ;  frog  large,  elastic  ;  bars  strong ;  sole 
concave ;   heel  wide,  high 

21.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from 

the  point  of  the  shoulders  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and 
foot.     From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  Hue 
■      dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and 
pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof    .... 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  487. 


332  Effective  Farming 

Score-card  for  Light  Horses  (Continued) 


Scale  of  Points  for  Gelding 

Per- 
fect 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Body  —  9  points  : 

22.  Chest,  deep,  low,  large  girth 

2 
2 
2 
2 

1 

1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
7 
2 
1 
2 

4 

4 

5 
15 

23.  Ribs,  long,  sprung,  close 

24.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled  . 

25.  Loin,  wide,  short,  thick 

26.  Underline,  long ;   flank  let  down       .... 

Hindquarters  —  30  points  : 

27.  Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 

29.  Tail  attached  high,  well  carried 

30.  Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled 

3L  Quarters,  heavily  muscled,  deep       .... 

32.  Gaskins  or  lower  thighs,  long,  wide,  muscular 

33.  Hocks,  clearly  defined ;   wide,  straight 

34.  Cannons,  short,  wide ;   sinews  large,  set  back 

35.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

36.  Pasterns,  strong,  sloping 

37.  Feet,  medium,  even  size;     straight;     horn 
dense ;    frog  large,  elastic ;    bars  strong ; 
sole  concave ;   heel  wide,  high       .... 

38.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line 

from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pas- 
tern, and  foot.    From  the  side,  a  perpen- 
dicular line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the 
gaskin  in  the  middle  ;   and  a  perpendicular 
line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should 
run  parallel  with  the  Hne  of  the  cannon     . 
Action  —  20  points  : 

39.  Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 

40.  Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high  .... 

Total        

100 

Note  to  Teachers.  —  In  this  volume  space  is  not  available  for 
considering  the  subject  of  stock-judging  very  extensively ;  in  fact,  a 
volume  of  several  hundred  pages  is  necessary  to  cover  the  subject  thor- 
oughly ;  such  volumes  are  listed  in  the  references.  If  much  time  can  be 
devoted   to  stock-judging  in  your  school,  it  will  be  well  to  adopt  a 


Horses  333 

specific  book  on  the  subject.  The  bulletins  and  circulars  listed  as 
references  are  used  in  many  schools  as  guides  to  the  study  of  stock- 
judging. 

Frequent  practice  in  scoring  and  judging  of  live-stock  is  necessary 
if  the  pupils  are  to  become  at  all  proficient  in  the  work. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  415- 
507.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Plumb,  C.  S.,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals.     Ginn  and  Co. 

Plumb,  C.  S.,  Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry.    Webb  Pubhshing  Co. 

Hunt,  T.  F.,  and  Burkett,  C.  W.,  Farm  Animals.    Orange  Judd  Co. 

Curtis,  R.  S.,  Live  Stock  Judging  and  Selection.     Lea  &  Febiger. 

Craig,  John  A.,  Judging  Livestock.  Kenyon  Printing  Co.  Des  Moines, 
la. 

Gay,  C.  W.,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live-Stock.  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Gay,  C.  W.,  Productive  Horse  Husbandry.     The  Lippincott  Co. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  487,  Judging  Horses. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  170,  The  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  667,  Breaking  and  Training  Colts. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  803,  Horse  Breeding  Suggestions  for  Farmers. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  619,  Breeds  of  Draft  Horses. 

Animal  Industry  Circular  113  (U.  S.  Department  Agriculture),  Classi- 
fication for  American  Carriage  Horses. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  779,  How  to  Select  a  Sound  Horse. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
BEEF  AND   DUAL-PURPOSE   CATTLE 

Types  of  cattle. 
Conformation  of  beef  animals. 
Conformation  of  dual-purpose  animals. 
Breeds  of  beef  cattle. 

Shorthorn,  Polled  Durham,  Hereford,  Polled  Hereford,  Aber- 
deen-Angus, Galloway. 
Breeds  of  dual-purpose  cattle. 

Dual-purpose  Shorthorns,  Red  Poll,  Devon. 
Market  classes  and  grades  of  beef  cattle. 
Feeding  of  beef  cattle. 
Rations  for  beef  cattle. 

The  number  of  beef  cattle  in  the  United  States  has  greatly 
decreased  in  recent  years.  As  a  result,  high  prices  are  paid  for 
good  beef  animals ;  this  has  caused  a  greater  interest  in  the  pro- 
duction of  beef  and  many  farmers  are  now  going  into  this  line 
of  work.  Until  recently,  the  Central  States  and  the  western 
plains  produced  most  of  the  beef  cattle  of  the  country,  but  now 
many  herds  are  to  be  found  in  the  East  and  the  South. 

176.  Types  of  cattle.  —  Cattle  kept  primarily  for  the  pro- 
duction of  beef  are  known  as  beef  cattle ;  those  kept  primarily 
for  the  production  of  milk,  as  dairy  cattle ;  and  those  kept 
for  the  production  of  both  beef  and  milk,  as  dual-purpose  cattle. 
Beef  cattle  have  been  carefully  developed  with  the  idea  of  pro- 
ducing a  maximum  quantity  of  best  quality  beef.  The  cows 
give  milk  enough  for  their  calves,  but  little  more.  Beef  ani- 
mals are  not  satisfactory  for  milk  production.  Dairy  cattle 
have  been  developed  for  the  secretion  of  large  quantities  of 
milk  and  are  undesirable  for  beef.     Dual-purpose  cattle  have 

334 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


335 


been  developed  to  produce  females  that  will  yield  a  fair  quantity 
of  milk  and  bear  offspring  that  are  desirable  for  beef.  This 
chapter  deals  with  beef  and  dual-purpose  animals,  discussion 
of  dairy  cattle  being  reserved  for  a  later  chapter.  The  ex- 
ternal parts  of  the  beef  and  dual-purpose  animals  are  indicated 
in  Figs.  130  and  131. 

177.    Conformation  of  beef  animals.  —  Cattle  belonging  to 
the  beef  class  should  possess  a  certain  conformation  of  body. 


/ 


J!v 


^.  f'k'  I    u--^--^ ^ tA 


Fig.  130.  —  Points  of  beef  cattle,  side  view.  1,  muzzle;  2,  mouth;  3,  nostril; 
7,  eye  ;  8,  ear ;  9,  poll;  10,  horn;  11,  neck;  12,  throat;  13,  dewlap;  14,  top 
of  neck  or  crest;  16,  top  of  shoulder;  17,  shoulder;  18,  point  of  shoulder; 
19,  arm  ;  20,  shank  ;  21,  brisket ;  22,  topline  ;  23.  crops  ;  25,  ribs,  or  barrel ; 
26,  fore  flank  ;  27,  back,  or  chine  ;  28,  loin  ;  29,  hind  flank  ;  30,  underHne, 
or  bottom  line;  31,  hip,  point  of  hip,  hook,  or  hook  bone;  32,  rump; 
33,  tailhead ;  35,  buttocks ;  36,  thigh ;  38,  hock ;  40,  navel. 

They  are  short  in  the  neck  and  legs,  broad  and  deep  in 
body,  well  filled  along  the  back,  with  a  good  spring  of  rib, 
and  straight  top  and  bottom  lines.  When  viewed  from  the 
side,  the  body  approaches  a  parallelogram  in  shape,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  lines  in  Fig.  132.     The  butcher  desires  an  ani-^ 


336 


Effective  Farming 


mal  with  the  greatest  proportion  of  high-priced  cuts  and  the 
smallest  proportion  of  low-priced  cuts.  The  different  cuts  of 
beef  with  the  relative  wholesale  prices  of  normal  times  are 


Fig.  131.  —  Points  of  beef  cattle,  front  and  rear  views.  4,  lips;  5,  face; 
6,  forehead;  15,  neck  vein,  or  shoulder;  18,  point  of  shoulder;  21,  brisket; 
24,  girth ;  34,  pin  bones ;  35,  buttocks ;  37,  twist ;  39,  purse. 


shown  in  Fig.  133.  The  best  animal  from  the  butcher's  stand- 
point is  one  with  the  greatest  development  of  the  upper  half 
of  the  body  and  the  smallest  amount  of  head,  neck,  legs,  and 

waste.  Such  an  ani- 
mal is  most  nearly 
approached  in  the 
parallelogram  form 
of  the  beef  animal. 
The  feeder  of  beef 
cattle  looks  for  an 
animal  that  will 
have  this  form  when 
the  feeding  period  is 
finished,  and  he  de- 
sires an  individual 
of  good  feeding  ca- 


£1  i '"' ..  J-jiA  Mfe  'w--  -  •*-  •<  isT^fefe- .". 


Fig.  132.  —  A  prime  steer.     The  lines  show  the 
parallelogram  shape  desired  in  beef  cattle. 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


337 


RUMP\ 


■lNFrK\  \  PRIME  \PORTEBHOUStf  ,ku,vIK 

r  ®    \  «39''»*- \    fee tbs.  \       ®      >  34-lbs. /@  7 cr* 


68tbs.  .   ^^  ^ 

14-cts.  \  |i2'/aclSi'  ROUND 

X--"       \-"-^  1         /  124  lbs. 
^"^""  RIBS  PLATe\  FLANi^-/.     ' 
50  lbs.       \  22  lbs. 


Fig.  133.  —  Cuts  of  beef. 


pacity,  breadth  and  fullness  in  the  chest  and  heart  girth,  and 
one  in  thrifty  condition. 

178.  Conformation  of  dual-purpose  animals.  —  Dual-purpose 
animals  are  less  uniform  in  conformation  than  beef  or  dairy  cattle. 
Some  incline  more  toward  the  beef  type  and  others  toward  the 
dairy     type.      Com- 
pared with  beef  ani- 
mals,   they    show    a 
longer  neck,  less  tend- 
ency toward  putting 
on  fat,  and  the  females 
are  better  developed 
in  the  udder,  a  dairy 
characteristic. 

179.  Breeds       of 
beef      cattle.  —  The 

beef  breeds  in  the  United  States  are  Shorthorn,  Polled  Durham, 
Hereford,  Polled  Hereford,  Aberdeen  Angus,  and  Galloway. 
Cattle  of  these  breeds  are  popular  with  farmers  and  ranchers 
in  the  western  and  central  parts  of  the  country  where  grass  and 
corn  are  abundant.     They  are  also  scattered  over  many  parts 

of  the  South  and 
East  where  beef -rais- 
ing is  increasing. 

Shorthorn.  —  The 
most  popular  beef 
breed  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Short- 
horn, or  Durham 
(Fig.  134).  More 
animals  of  this  breed 
than  of  any  other  are 
found  in  this  country 
and  they  are  scattered 
over  all  parts.     They 


Fig.  134.  —  Shorthorn  bull. 


338 


Effective  Farming 


are  the  largest  of  any  of  the  beef  breeds,  the  bulls  ranging  in 
weight  from  1800  to  2400  pounds  and  the  cows  from  1300  to 
1600  pounds.  The  color  may  be  red,  red  and  white,  white,  or 
roan.  The  animals  are  fairly  low-set,  of  good  length,  depth, 
and  width,  and  the  body  is  thickly  fleshed. 

Shorthorns  are  early  maturing  and  fatten  easily.  The 
steers  sell  well  as  feeders  and  the  meat  is  of  high  quality. 
The  crosses  of  these  cattle  with  other  beef  breeds  and  with 
scrubs  result  in  very  desirable  beef  animals.  The  Shorthorns 
are   not   as   good   rustlers   for  feed   as   those  of   some  other 

breeds,  but  where 
grass  is  plentiful 
they  will  make  beef 
faster  than  any 
other  breed.  They 
have  been  called  the 
farmers'  cattle,  be- 
cause they  fit  so 
well  into  conditions 
on  general  farms. 

There    are   three 

important  strains 

—  the    Booth,    the 

Scotch,  and  the  Bates.     Booth  and  Scotch  Shorthorns  are  true 

beef  cattle,  while  the  Bates  Shorthorns  are  of  the  dual-purpose 

type. 

Polled  Durham.  —  The  Polled  Durhams  are  hornless  Short- 
horns. This  breed  is  of  recent  origin  and  is  becoming  popular 
in  many  sections.  Two  divisions  of  this  breed  are  the  single- 
standard  and  the  double-standard.  The  single-standard  ani- 
mals were  developed  by  breeding  hornless,  or  muley,  cows  of  any 
breed  to  pure-bred  Shorthorn  bulls,  then  breeding  any  polled 
offspring  to  pure-bred  Shorthorn  bulls  and  continuing  this 
crossing  up  to  the  fifth  cross.  The  resulting  animals  were  at 
least  96|  per  cent  Shorthorn  blood  and  were  eligible  for  registry 


Fig.  135.  —  Polled  Durham  bull. 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


339 


in  the  Polled  Durham  herd-book,  but  as  they  were  not  pure- 
bred Shorthorns  they  were  not  eligible  for  registry  in  the 
American  Shorthorn  herd-book.  The  double-standard  ani- 
mals were  produced  by  breeding  pure-bred  Shorthorn  hornless 
cows  to  -  pure-bred  Shorthorn  bulls.  The  resulting  animals 
being  pure-bred  Shorthorns  were  eligible  for  registry  in  the 
American  Shorthorn  herd-book  and  being  polled  were  also 
eligible  to  registry  in  the  Polled  Durham  herd-book.  In  de- 
veloping the  breed,  some  breeders  have  inclined  more  toward 
the  beef  type  and  others  toward  the  dual-purpose  type  with 
the  result  that  the  Polled  Durhams  are  now  somewhat  variable. 
A  good  representa- 
tive of  the  breed  is 
shown  in  Fig.  135. 
Observe  the  general 
Shorthorn  charac- 
teristics and  the 
polled  head. 

Hereford. — In  the 
United  States  the 
Hereford  breed 
(Fig.  136)  ranks 
second  to  the  Short- 
horn in  numbers 
and  its  popularity 
is  increasing.  In 
weight  they  rank  well  with  the  Shorthorns,  mature  bulls 
averaging  from  1800  to  2000  pounds  and  mature  cows  from 
1200  to  1600  pounds.  The  animals  are  red  with  white  mark- 
ings, the  color  and  markings  being  a  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  the  breed.  The  body  is  red,  varying  in  different 
animals  from  a  light  to  a  dark  shade;  a  rich  medium  red, 
not  too  dark,  is  most  desired  by  breeders.  The  white  mark- 
ings are  on  the  head  and  face  with  the  white  usually  extending 
along  the  top  of  the  neck  and  shoulders,  on  the  throat,  dew- 


FiG.  136.  —  Hereford  cow. 


340  Effective  Farming 

lap,  underline,  and  legs.  Also,  a  white  switch  on  the  tail 
is  often  found.  The  white  face  is  so  universal  and  so  pro- 
nounced a  character  that  the  animals  are  often  called  "  white 
faces."  In  conformation  the  body  of  the  Herefords  is  broad, 
deep,  compactly  built  and  is  set  on  short  legs.  The  general 
appearance  is  that  of  a  low,  compact,  blocky  animal.  The 
horns  are  longer  and  coarser  than  those  of  the  Shorthorn; 
they  are  wide  with  waxy  tips  and  curve  outward,  upward, 
and  backward  or  outward  and  forward,  or  outward  and  down- 
ward. In  bulls  they  are  often  drooping.  The  Hereford  some- 
times has  a  sloping  rump  and  thighs  lacking  in  depth  and  thick- 
ness. In  recent  years  breeders  have  accomplished  much  to 
correct  these  faults.  The  hair  is  generally  curly  and  of  medium 
length,  although  short-haired  animals  are  often  seen.  The 
animals  are  good  rustlers  for  feed  and  are  well  adapted  to  range 
conditions.  They  cross  well  with  native  stock  and  have  been 
largely  used  by  cattlemen  for  improving  range  stock  in  the 
Southwest.  They  thrive  in  the  South,  cross  fairly  well  with 
the  native  stock  and  are  able  to  stand  the  heat  and  to  sub- 
sist on  the  rather  poor  native  pastures.  They  are  also  very 
popular  in  the  corn-belt. 

Polled  Hereford.  —  A  breed  of  cattle  known  as  Polled  Here- 
ford has  recently  been  developed.  The  breed  was  produced 
by  selecting  and  breeding  Herefords  that  showed  polled  char- 
acteristics. Pure-bred  Polled  Herefords  are  eligible  for  registry 
in  the  American  Hereford  herd-book  and  the  American  Polled 
Hereford  record.  They  are  the  same  as  horned  Herefords, 
except  for  the  absence  of  horns. 

Aberdeen- Angus.  —  The  animals  of  the  Aberdeen- Angus 
breed  (Fig.  137)  are  hornless.  They  are  usually  smaller  than 
the  Shorthorns,  mature  bulls  ranging  from  2000  to  2200  pounds 
and  mature  cows  from  1200  to  1600  pounds.  The  desired 
color  is  solid  black.  Red  animals  are  sometimes  found,  but 
they  are  not  popular  with  breeders.  In  conformation  the 
Angus  cattle  differ  from  the  Shorthorns  and  Herefords  show- 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


341 


Fig.   137.  —  Abcrdeen-Aii^u,^ 


ing  more  of  a  barrel-shaped,  or  cylindrical,  body  that  is  more 
compact  and  smooth.  Notice  the  cylindrical  shape  of  the 
animal  shown  in  Fig.  137.  The  meat  is  fine-grained  and  of  the 
highest  quaUty ;  the 
breed  has  won  re- 
peatedly in  the  car- 
cass tests  at  many 
live-stock  shows. 
The  animals  are 
early  maturing  and 
fatten  well  when 
young  and  are  pop- 
ular for  baby  beef. 
They  are  not  as 
good  rustlers  for 
feed  as  the  Here- 
fords  and  for  this  reason  are  less  popular  on  the  ranges.  They 
are^  becoming  popular  in  the  South,  ranking  next  to  the  Here- 
ford in  their  adaptability  to  conditions  in  that  section.  They 
are  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  corn-belt  states. 

Galloway.  —  An- 
other black,  horn- 
less breed  of  cattle  is 
the  Galloway  (Fig. 
138).  In  weight 
they  are  less  than 
the  Angus,  mature 
bulls  ranging  in 
weight  from  1700 
to  1900  pounds  and 
mature  cows,  1000 
to  1300  pounds. 
The  color  is  black  with  a  brownish  tinge.  In  conformation 
they  are  low-set  and  deep ;  the  body  is  a  little  longer  and  much 
fatter  in  rib  than  the  Angus  and  is  covered  with  long,  curly 


Fig.  138.  —  Galloway  bull. 


342 


Effective  Farming 


hair.  The  head,  Uke  the  body,  is  short  and  broad  and  is 
covered  with  long  hair.  The  poll  is  flatter  than  that  of  the 
Angus  and  the  ears  are  set  farther  back  from  the  forehead. 
The  Galloways  are  good  rustlers,  very  vigorous,  and  are  able 
to  stand  a  cold  climate.  They  have  proved  to  be  very  valu- 
able for  use  on  the  ranges  of  northwestern  United  States  and 
western  Canada,  where  they  are  now  found  in  large  numbers. 

180.  Breeds  of  dual-purpose  cattle.  —  The  chief  dual-pur- 
pose breeds  in  the  United  States  are  certain  strains  of  the  Short- 
horn, the  Red  Poll,  and  the  Devon.     Dual-purpose  cattle  are 


Fig.  139.  —  Dual-purpose  Shorthorns. 


popular  with  farmers  who  keep  a  few  cattle  on  which  they 
depend  for  milk  and  butter  for  the  family,  and  for  offspring 
that  will  sell  readily  for  beef.  Since  beef  and  dairy  animals 
must  be  entirely  different  in  type,  it  is  impossible  to  produce 
a  breed  that  will  combine  the  functions  of  both  and  be  superior 
for  both  purposes.  However,  it  is  possible  for  an  animal 
to  be  a  fair  milker  and  at  the  same  time  produce  calves  that 
make  good,  but  not  the  best,  beef  animals. 

Dual-purpose   Shorthorns.  —  The   most    popular    cattle   for 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


343 


dual-purpose  are  the  Shorthorns.  Formerly  most  of  the  ani- 
mals were  of  the  Bates  strain,  but  recently  many  of  the  Scotch 
strain  have  been  used.  Dual-purpose  Shorthorn  cows  are 
longer  in  the  legs,  larger  in  the  barrel,  and  thinner  in  the  quar- 
ters than  those  of  the  beef  type.  The  bulls  approach  the  beef 
type  more  than  do  the  cows.  Calves  from  dual-purpose  Short- 
horns usually  fatten  well  and  make  a  good  quality  of  beef. 
Fig.  139  shows  a  group  of  dual-purpose  Shortho]:n  cows  that 
have  good  milking 
qualities. 

Red  Po//.  — This 
is  strictly  a  dual- 
purpose  breed.  In 
size  the  animals  are 
smaller  than  most 
of  the  beef  breeds, 
mature  bulls  weigh- 
ing from  1700  to 
2100  pounds  and 
mature  cows  from 
1100  to  1350  pounds.  The  color  ranges  from  light  to  dark 
red,  a  deep,  rich  red  being  preferred  by  breeders.  The  animals 
are  without  horns,  the  head  is  lean  and  of  medium  length, 
the  poll  sharp  and  covered  with  a  tuft  of  hair.  The  neck 
is  longer  and  thinner  than  in  the  beef  breeds.  The  chest  is 
well  developed  and  the  ribs  well  sprung,  but  the  body  lacks 
the  thick  covering  of  flesh  of  strictly  beef  animals.  The  barrel 
is  larger  than  in  the  beef  breeds  (a  dairy  characteristic)  and 
the  hindquarters  are  hghter  fleshed.  The  udder  is  usually 
well  developed,  being  more  like  that  of  dairy  than  of  beef  ani- 
mals. This  character  is  shown  in  Fig.  140.  The  breed  is 
popular  in  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  IlUnois,  Ohio,  Texas,  Nebraska, 
and  Michigan.     As  a  breed  they  lack  somewhat  in  uniformity. 

Devon.  —  The  Devon  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  cattle. 
The  cows  are  good  milkers  and  the  steers  are  good  for  beef  and 


Fig.  140.  —  Red  Poll  cow. 


344  Effective  Farming 

as  oxen  are  unsurpassed.  The  Devon  is  not  now  especially 
popular  in  the  United  States,  due  probably  to  oxen  not  being 
used  extensively  as  beasts  of  burden.  In  size  the  animals 
are  smaller  than  Red  Polls,  mature  bulls  ranging  in  weight 
from  1500  to  2000  pounds  and  mature  cows  from  1100  to  1400 
pounds.  The  color  is  solid  red,  a  rich  bright  red  being  the  most 
desired  shade.  In  conformation  the  animals  incline  more 
toward  the  beef  than  the  dairy  type.  The  cows  are  fair  milk- 
ers and,  although  the  steers  fatten  more  slowly  than  those  of 
the  beef  breeds,  they  produce  meat  of  good  quality  and  fine 
texture. 

181.  Market  classes  and  grades  of  beef  cattle.  —  Variations 
in  the  weight,  condition,  quality,  and  age  of  the  beef  cattle 
sent  to  the  live-stock  markets  make  it  necessary  to  establish 
different  market  classes  and  grades.  Often,  however,  owing  to 
the  fluctuation  in  the  supply  and  demand  of  cattle  on  the  market, 
there  is  variation  from  day  to  day  in  the  classes.  For  example, 
a  lot  of  cattle  one  day  might  class  as  butcher  stock  and  another 
day,  when  the  demand  for  cattle  was  less,  they  might  class  as 
stockers  and  feeders.  (See  Table  XIV.)  Nevertheless,  the 
classes  are  fairly  distinct  and  breeders  and  feeders  of  beef 
cattle  can,  by  studying  the  published  market  reports,  keep 
familiar  with  market  conditions.  In  Table  XIV  are  given  the 
market  classes  and  grades  of  cattle  on  the  Chicago  market,  as 
published  in  an  Illinois  Station  bulletin  by  H.  W.  Mumford. 

Beef  cattle  are  steers  ready  for  the  block.  (See  Fig.  132.) 
They  are  in  demand  by  exporters,  packers,  and  shippers.  Ex- 
porters usually  send  them  to  England,  packers  slaughter  them 
for  dressed  beef,  and  shippers  send  them  to  some  other  live- 
stock market.  Butcher  stock  includes  cattle  that  have  been 
''  warmed  up,"  a  term  used  to  designate  cattle  that  have  been 
on  full  feed  only  a  short  time  and  are  not,  therefore,  in  prime 
condition.  It  also  includes  the  better  grades  of  heifers,  cows, 
and  bulls  that  can  be  slaughtered  for  dressed  beef.  Canners 
are  inferior  animals  that  are  used  for  canned  meat.     Cutters 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


345 


TABLE   XIV 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Beef  Cattle 


Beef  cattle 


Butcher  stock 


Canners  and  cutters  . 


Stockers  and  feeders 


Veal  calves 


Milkers  and  springers 


Prime  steers 

Choice  steers 

Good  steers 

Medium  steers 

Common  rough  steers 

Prime  heifers 

Choice  heifers 

Good  heifers 

Medium  heifers 

Prime  cows 

Choice  cows 

Good  cows 

Medium  cows 

Common  rough  steers 

Choice  bulls 

Good  bulls 

Medium  bulls 

Good  cutters 

Medium  cutters 

Common  cutters  and  good  canners 

Medium  canners 

Inferior  canners 

Bologna  bulls 

Fancy  selected  feeders 

Choice  feeders 

Good  feeders 

Medium  feeders 

Common  feeders 

Inferior  feeders 

Feeder  bulls 

Fancy  selected  yearling  stockers 

Choice  yearling  stockers 

Good  yearling  stockers 

Medium  yearling  stockers 

Common  yearling  stockers 

Inferior  yearling  stockers 

Good  stock  heifers 

Medium  stock  heifers 

Common  stock  heifers 

Choice  calves 

Good  calves 

Medium  calves     . 

Common  calves 


346  Effective  Farming 

are  of  a  slightly  better  grade  than  canners  and  carry  sufficient 
flesh  to  allow  the  loin  and  ribs  to  be  sold  over  the  butcher's 
block ;  the  other  parts  of  the  carcass  are  used  for  canned  meat. 
Feeders  are  animals  intended  for  immediate  use  in  the  feed 
lot.  Stockers  are  animals  too  young  for  immediate  use  as 
feeders  ;  after  attaining  more  growth  they  are  placed  in  the  feed 
lot.  Veal  calves  are  those  of  suitable  age,  condition,  and  weight 
to  sell,  when  slaughtered,  as  veal.  A  milker  is  a  cow  in  milk 
or  one  with  a  calf  at  her  side.  A  springer  is  a  cow  advanced 
in  pregnancy.  Baby  beef  cattle  include  prime  or  choice  steers 
between  one  and  two  years  of  age  that  have  the  desired  beef 
conformation  and  show  good  killing  quality. 

182.  Feeding  of  beef  cattle.  —  As  a  business,  the  feeding  of 
beef  cattle  is  changing  rapidly.  Formerly  feeders  were  grown 
on  the  western  ranges  and  shipped  to  the  corn-belt  where  they 
were  fed  for  a  time  and  then  sold  for  beef.  The  western  ranges 
are  fast  being  settled  by  farmers  and  the  large  pastures  are  no 
longer  available.  As  a  result  feeders  from  the  Western  States 
are  becoming  fewer  in  number.  On  many  farms  in  the  corn- 
belt  states  where  a  large  proportion  of  the  land  is  too  rough 
for  economical  tillage,  feeders  can  be  raised  advantageously. 
The  southern  farmer  also  has  good  opportunities  for  raising 
and  fattening  beef  cattle  and  many  are  taking  advantage  of 
these  conditions. 

183.  Rations  for  beef  cattle.  —  Corn  is  the  grain  used  largely 
in  feeding  beef  cattle.  It  is  supplemented  by  various  by-prod- 
uct feeds.  Stover  and  straw  are  largely  used  as  roughage. 
Leguminous  hays,  including  alfalfa,  clover,  and  cowpeas,  are 
often  fed  to  the  animals  with  good  results.  Silage  also  is  used 
extensively.  It  saves  grain  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
mature  ears  in  the  silage. 

Rations  will  be  affected,  of  course,  by  the  feed  available  and 
by  the  purpose  of  the  feeding  —  whether  the  cattle  are  being 
fattened  or  are  being  carried  over  the  winter  with  no  attempt  to 
fatten  them.     Below  are  given  some  sample  rations  adapted 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


347 


from  Harper.     They  are   based  on  a  weight  of  1000  pound 
animals  and  are  fed  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  animals  : 

Rations  for  Wintering  Cattle 


783  pound  steer  : 

Shelled  corn,  6  pounds 
Clover  hay,  19  pounds 

767  pound  steer: 

Shelled  corn,  4  pounds 
Corn  stalks,  9  pounds 
Clover  hay,  9  pounds 


788  pound  steer: 

Cowpea  hay,  20  pounds 
743  pound  steer 

Silage,  44  pounds 
707  pound  steer: 

Corn  stalks,  20  pounds 


Rations  for  Fattening  Cattle 


457  pound  calves: 

Shelled  corn,  22  pounds 
Cottonseed  meal,  3  pounds 
Clover  hay,  12  pounds 

534  pound  calves : 

Shelled  corn,  18  pounds 
Cottonseed  meal,  2^  pounds 
Clover  hay,  5  pounds 
Corn  silage,  18  pounds 

854  pound  yearli?ig  steers: 
Shelled  corn,  19  pounds 
Cottonseed  meal,  2^  pounds 
Clover  hay,  4|  pounds 
Corn  silage,  18  pounds 


1010  pound  steers: 

Shelled  corn,  16  pounds 
Cottonseed  meal,  3  pounds 
Clover  hay,  4  pounds 
Corn  silage,  15  pounds 

979  pound  steers: 

Snapped  corn,  10  pounds 
Prairie  hay,  12  pounds 
Alfalfa  hay,  10  pounds 

893  pound  steers : 
Ear  corn,  20  pounds 
Clover  hay,  10  pounds 


Ward  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  578  gives  the  following  sample 
rations  for  1000  pound  steers  when  silage  is  to  be  fed : 


Sample  Rations  with  Silage 

FOR    the    corn-belt 

Ration  1 

Pounds 

Corn  silage 25 

Corn  stover 6 

Cottonseed  meal  or  oil  meal 3 

Shelled  corn 14 

Ration  2 

Corn  silage 25 

Clover  hay 7 

Shelled  corn 15 


348  Effective  Farming 


FOR    THE    EASTERN    STATES     WHERE    HAY    IS    VERY    HIGH    AND    CORN    IS 
RELATIVELY    HIGH 

Pounds 

Corn  silage 30 

Corn  stover 6 

Cottonseed  meal  or  oil  meal 4 

Shelled  corn 10 

FOR  THE  SOUTH  WHERE  COTTONSEED  MEAL  IS  OF  MODERATE    PRICE   AND 
COWPEA    HAY    IS    RAISED    ON    THE    FARM 

Ration  1 

Pounds 

Corn  silage 35 

Cowpea  hay 8 

Cottonseed  meal  or  oil  meal 7 

Ration  2 

Pounds 

Corn  silage 30 

Cottonseed  hulls 12 

Cottonseed  meal 7 


FOR    THE    WEST    WHERE    CORN    CANNOT    BE    RAISED 

Ration  1 

Pounds 

Kafir  silage 30 

Prairie  hay   .     , 3 

Cottonseed  meal 3 

Kafir  meal 10 

Ration  2 

^  Pounds 

Kafir  silage 25 

Alfalfa 7 

Kafir  grain 15 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle,  dual-purpose  cattle. 

2.  Describe  the  conformation  of  beef  cattle. 

3.  Which  is  the  most  popular  beef  cattle  breed  ? 

4.  The  animals  of  which  breed  are  especially  good  rustlers  for  feed  ? 

5.  Compare  animals  of  the  Galloway  and  Aberdeen-Angus  breeds. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  baby  beef  cattle? 

7.  What  feeds  are  most  commonly  fed  to  beef  cattle? 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle 


349 


8.  Compare  the  rations  for  wintering  cattle  with  those  for  fatten- 
ing cattle. 

9.  Why  is  the  Shorthorn  called  the  farmers'  cow? 
10.   Which  beef  breeds  are  popular  in  the  South? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Scoring  and  judging  beef  cattle.  —  Use  the  score-card  given 
herewith,  score  and  judge  beef  cattle.  Follow  directions  and  methods 
outlined  for  scoring  horses  as  given  on  a  previous  page. 

Score-card  for  Beef  Cattle  (Fat)  V 


Scale  op  Points 


General  appearance  —  40  per  cent : 

1.  Weight,  estimated lb. ;  actual 

lb.,  according  to  age        

2.  Form,   straight  top  and  underline ;      deep, 

broad,  low  set,  stylish,  smooth,  compact, 
symmetrical 

3.  Quality,  fine,  soft  hair ;   loose,  pliable  skin  of 

medium  thickness;   dense,  clean,  medium- 
sized  bone 

4.  Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm,  mellow 

flesh;    free  from  patches,  ties,  lumps,  and 
rolls;  full  cod  and  flank  indicating  finish     . 
Head  and  neck  —  7  per  cent : 

5.  Muzzle,  broad,  mouth  large ;    nostrils  large 

and  open 

6.  Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

7.  Face,  short ;   jaw  strong 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

9.  Ears,  medium  size ;   fine  texture       .... 

10.  Neck,  short,  thick,  blending  smoothly  with 

shoulder ;   throat  clean  with  light  dewlap  . 
Forequarters  —  9  per  cent : 

11.  Shoulder  vein,  full 

12.  Shoulders,  smoothly  covered,  compact,  snug, 

neat 

13.  Brisket,  trim,  neat ;   breast  full 

14.  Legs,  wide  apart,  straight,  short ;    arm  full ; 

shank  fine 


Points  Deficient 


Stand- 
ard 


10 


10 


12 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


From  Purdue  University  Extension  Circular  No  29. 


350  Effective  Farming 

Score-card  for  Beef  Cattle  (Fat)   {Continued) 


Points  Deficient 

Scale  of  Points 

Stand- 
ard 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 

Body  —  30  per  cent : 

15.  Chest,  full,  deep,  wide ;  girth  large ;  crops  full 

16.  Ribs,    long,    arched,    thickly   and   smoothly 

fleshed                                  

4 

8 

8 
8 

2. 

1 

3 
4 
4 

*      2 

17.    Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  smoothly 
fleshed                                      

18.  Loin,  thick,  broad 

19    Flank  full   even  with  underline  .           ... 

.... 



Hindquarters  —  14  per  cent : 

20.  Hips,  smooth .     . 

21.  Rump,  long,  wide,  level;    tail-head  smooth; 

pin-bones  wide  apart,  not  prominent     .     . 

22.  Thighs,  deep,  full 

23.  Twist,  deep,  plump 

24.  Legs,  wide  apart,  straight,  short ;  shanks  fine, 

smooth 

Total                               .     .     .     .     .     .     . 

100 

2.  The  cuts  of  beef  and  veal.  —  An  important  study  in  agriculture 
is  the  disposition  of  the  carcass  after  the  animals  are  slaughtered  for 
meat.  Many  facts  about  this  matter  can  be  learned  by  visiting  a  local 
packing  house  or  butcher  shop.  Bulletin  147  by  the  University  of 
Illinois  is  a  very  excellent  treatment  of  this  subject.  It  contains  about 
one  hundred  fifty  pages  and  seventy-five  illustrations  from  original 
carcasses  and  cuts  of  meat  and  it  shows  the  Chicago  method  of  cutting 
meat.  It  is  not  distributed  except  to  persons  especially  interested  in 
the  subject,  but  an  abstract  of  the  bulletin  is  for  general  use  and  dis- 
tribution. By  explaining  to  the  Director  of  the  station  the  use  that 
will  be  made  of  the  bulletin  the  teacher  can  undoubtedly  secure  a  few 
copies  of  the  complete  pamphlet  for  reference  and  enough  copies  of  the 
abstract  for  class  use. 

Teachers  should  arrange  with  a  packer  or  a  butcher  to  take  the  class 
to  his  place  of  business.  Usually  these  men  are  willing  to  aid  in  teaching 
about  the  cuts  of  meat.  In  some  sections  the  local  butchers  do  not 
foUow  the  Chicago  method  of  cutting  beef  ;  however,  the  methods  will 
not  differ  very  materially.     In  which  part  of  the  carcass  are  the  expen- 


Beef  and  Dual-purpose  Cattle  351 

sive  cuts?  The  cheaper  cuts?  Compare  the  price  of  porterhouse 
steak  with  flatrib  cuts  at  your  local  market.  Which  are  the  best  rib 
cuts?  How  many  porterhouse  steaks  in  a  carcass?  Why  does  a 
butcher  like  a  beef  animal  to  be  in  good  condition  ? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  oj  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  48-50; 

317-321.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Mumford,  H.  W.,  Beef  Production.     Published  by  the  author,  Urbana, 

111. 
Plumb,  C.  S.,  Beginnings  in  Animal   Husbandry.     Webb  PubUshing 

Co. 
Harper,  M.  W.,  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Animal    Industry   Bulletin    34   (U.   S.   Department  of   Agriculture), 

American  Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  612,  Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  580,  Beef  Production  in  the  South. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  655,  Cottonseed  Meal  for  Feeding  Beef  Cattle, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  811,  Production  of  Baby  Beef. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  588,  Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  Corn-Belt. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
DAIRY   CATTLE 

Conformation  of  dairy  cattle. 
Breeds  of  dairy  cattle. 

Jersey,   Guernsey,   Holstein-Friesian,  Ayrshire,   Dutch  Belted, 
Brown  Swiss. 
The  dairy  calf. 

Teaching  a  calf  to  drink. 

Kind  of  milk  for  calves. 

Grain  and  hay  for  calves. 

Sanitation  in  calf  pens. 
Feeding  dairy  cows  in  summer. 

Cows  on  pasture. 

Soiling  crops  and  silage  for  summer  feeding. 
Feeding  dairy  cows  in  winter. 

Succulent  feeds  for  winter. 

Dry  roughages  for  winter. 

Concentrates  in  the  ration. 

Quantities  of  grains  and  roughages  to  feed. 
Water  and  salt  for  cows. 
Stables  for  dairy  cows. 

Light. 

Ventilation. 

Convenience  of  arrangement. 

Floors. 

Ties  for  the  cattle. 

A  modern  sanitary  dairy  stable. 

The  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  have  been  highly  developed. 
They  are  specialized  for  the  production  of  milk  and  butter-fat. 
The  dairy  cow  is  a  marvelous  organism.  We  feed  her  grain, 
by-products  of  the  factory,  silage,  hay,  and  in  return  she  yields 
us  milk  in  enormous  quantities  and  of  high  nutritive  value. 

352 


Dairy  Cattle 


353 


There  are  records  of  27,000  and  30,000  pounds  of  milk  a  year 
from  a  single  cow,  yielding  milk  of  many  times  her  own  weight. 
There  are  also  recorded  yields  of  1200  pounds  of  butter-fat  in 
a  year,  equivalent  to  about  1500  pounds  of  butter.  With  such 
high  production,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  animal  requires 
the  best  of  feed  and  care,  and  comfortable,  well  lighted,  sani- 
tary stables.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in  recent  years 
in  the  care  and  housing  of  the  dairy  cow. 

184.  Conformation  of  dairy  cattle.  —  The  larger  number 
of  dairy  cows  that  secrete  large  quantities  of  milk  have  a  dis- 
tinctive conformation,  and  animals  possessing  this  are  said  to 
be  of  the  dairy  type.  Two  prominent  features  of  this  type  are 
spareness  of  frame 
and  a  wedge-shaped 
body.  The  spare  || 
frame  is  not  due  to 
disease  or  lack  of 
feed,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, to  the  tend- 
ency of  the  animals 
to  convert  feed  into 
milk  and  not  into 
body  fat.  In  a  cow 
of  good  conforma- 
tion three  wedges  are 
present.  The  first  is  seen  when  the  animal  is  viewed  from 
the  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  141.  The  wedge  is  not  formed  by 
lack  of  chest  depth,  but  by  proper  chest  depth  together  with 
extreme  depth  of  the  rear  of  the  barrel  and  largeness  of  the  udder. 
The  second  wedge  is  seen  when  the  cow  is  viewed  from  the 
front.  The  apex  of  the  wedge  is  at  the  withers  and  the  base 
at  the  floor  of  the  chest.  The  third  wedge  is  seen  when  the 
animal  is  viewed  from  above.  The  apex  is  at  the  withers  and 
the  base,  from  one  hip  point  to  the  other.  An  animal  having 
the  three-wedge  shape  has  abundant  abdominal  and  chest 
2a 


Fig.  141. 


Dairy  cow,  showing  wedge-shape 
form :  side  view. 


354 


Effective  Farming 

Note  Fig.  142,  the  external 


capacity  and  udder  development, 
parts  of  the  dairy  cow. 

185.  Breeds  of  dairy  cattle.  —  The  chief  breeds  of  dairy  cattle 
raised  in  the  United  States  are  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Holstein- 
Friesian,  and  Ayrshire.  Secondary  breeds  are  Dutch  Belted  and 
Brown  Swiss.     All  of  these  dairy  breeds  originated  in  Europe. 

Jersey.  —  The  Jersey  breed  originated  on  the  Island  of 
Jersey,  which  lies  in  the  English  channel  about  thirteen  miles 


H/A'BOA/er^    ^ 


-^FO/?£-H£AD 


^MUZZTLe 


i\.\\\UiMhi 


Fig.  142.  —  Points  of  the  dairy  cow. 

from  the  coast  of  France.  It  is  thought  that  the  foundation 
stock  was  from  Normandy  and  Brittany.  These  early  cattle 
were  rough  and  not  developed  in  the  milk-giving  quality,  but 
from  this  foundation  has  been  developed  an  excellent  breed  of 
cattle.  In  1779  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  the  importation 
of  cattle  into  Jersey  and  this  law  has  always  been  rigidly  en- 
forced, with  the  result  that  the  cattle  have  been  purely  bred 
for  more  than  a  century. 

Jerseys  have  been  imported  to  a  large  extent  into  the  United 
States  and  have  increased  in  number  so  rapidly  and  have  proved 


II 


Dairy  Cattle 


355 


so  well  adapted  to  the  wide  range  of  climate  conditions  that 
they  are  to  be  found  in  large  numbers  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Jerseys  are  the  smallest  of  the  chief  dairy  breeds,  the 
cows  averaging  in  weight  from  700  to  1000  pounds  and  the  bulls 
from  1200  to  1800  pounds.  The  color  is  variable,  ranging 
through  all  shades  of  brown  and  black,  and  various  shades 
of  fawn,  yellow,  red,  and  brindle.  With  the  colors  there  may 
or  may  not  be  present  large  or  small  patches  of  white;  those 
animals  showing  white  patches  are  known  as  broken-colored 
and  those  without,  as  solid-colored  animals.  Characteristics 
usually  present  in 
Jerseys  are  a  black 
muzzle,  which  is 
surrounded  by  a 
ring  of  light-colored 
skin  and  hair,  a 
black  tongue,  and  a 
black  switch. 

In  their  native 
home  the  Jerseys 
have  been  bred  for 
high  butter  produc- 
tion and  not  for 
high  milk  yield.  American  breeders  have  accomplished  much 
toward  increasing  the  milk  yield  and  at  the  same  time  have 
kept  up  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk.  As  found  in  America 
to-day,  the  Jersey  gives  a  moderate  quantity  of  milk  that  is 
rich  in  fat,  averaging  about  5  per  cent ;  in  the  quantity  of 
butter  that  can  be  made  from  the  milk,  she  ranks  very  high. 
Fig.  143  shows  Eminent's  Bess,  a  high-yielding  Jersey  cow. 
Study  the  Jersey  characteristics  of  this  animal. 

Guernsey.  —  Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel  Islands,  is  the 
native  home  of  this  breed.  The  original  stock,  like  that  of 
Jersey,  came  from  the  mainland  of  France  and  has  been  de- 
veloped by  careful  breeding  and  selection  of  the  animals.     The 


Fig/  143.  — Jersey  cow,  Eminent's  Bess,  209,719. 
Yearly  record,  18,781  pounds,  15.6  ounces  milk 
testing  962  pounds,  13.2  ounces  fat  equal  to  1132 
pounds,  12  ounces  butter. 


356 


Effective  Farming 


policy  of  excluding  all  outside  cattle  has  existed  in  Guernsey 
as  in  Jersey,  with  the  result  that  the  purity  of  the  animals  is 
unquestioned. 

There  have  been  fewer  importations  of  Guernseys  into  the 
United  States  than  of  Jerseys;  nevertheless  the  animals  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  country  and  their  popularity  is  increas- 
ing rapidly.  In  size  the  cattle  are  somewhat  larger  than  Jerseys, 
mature  cows  averaging  about  1050  pounds,  and  bulls,  about 
1500  pounds.  Often  the  cows  will  weigh  1200  pounds.  Yellow 
and  orange  with  large  patches  of  white  are  the  predominating 

colors,  but  darker 
shades  approaching 
brown  are  some- 
times found,  espe- 
cially on  bulls.  The 
muzzles  are  nearly 
always  buff  or  flesh- 
colored  surrounded 
by  light-colored 
hair.  A  characteris- 
tic of  the  breed  is  a 
secretion  of  a  yel- 
low coloring  matter 
from  the  skin,  which 
is  especially  notice- 
able in  the  ears, 
around  the  eyes,  and  about  the  udder.  In  quantity  and 
richness  of  milk.  Guernseys  are  similar  to  Jerseys,  giving  a 
moderate  quantity  relatively  rich  in  butter-fat.  The  milk 
is  more  yellow  than  that  of  the  Jerseys,  which  is  a  desirable 
quality,  especially  in  market  milk,  as  it  gives  the  product  an 
appearance  of  richness  much  desired  by  consumers.  Dairy- 
men who  supply  whole  milk  often  have  at  least  a  few  pure-bred 
or  high-grade  Guernseys  in  their  herds  because  of  this  yellow 
color  of  the  milk.     In  the  quantity  of  butter  that  can  be  made 


Fig.  144.  —  Guernsey  cow,  Johanna  Ch6ne,  30,889. 
As  a  three-year-old,  she  produced  16,186.70  pounds 
milk  testing  863.36  pounds  fat. 


II 


Dairy  Cattle 


357 


from  the  milk,  the  animals  rank  with  the  Jerseys.     Fig.  144 
shows  a  well  known  Guernsey  cow,  Johanna  Chene. 

Holstein-Friesian.  —  The  breed  of  black-and-white  cattle 
known  as  the  Holstein-Friesian  originated  in  North  Holland 
and  Friesland  where  they  have  been  purely  bred  for  two  thou- 
sand years  or  more.  The  dairy  industry  in  Holland  has  been 
highly  developed  and  the  cattle  have  always  been  well  cared  for 
and  fed  abundantly. 

Many  importations  have  been  made  into  the  United  States 
and  the  animals  have  increased  rapidly  in  number.  They  are 
now  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  coun- 
try, but  more  es- 
pecially in  dairy 
regions  where  high 
yield  of  milk  is  de- 
sired. In  size  the 
animals  are  the 
largest  of  the  dairy 
breeds;  mature 
cows  often  weigh 
1500  pounds  and 
seldom  less  than 
1200  pounds;  ma- 
ture bulls  often  go 
above  2500  pounds. 


Fig.  145.  —  Holstein-Friesian  cow,  Dutchess  Sky- 
lark Ormsby,  124,513.  World's  record  cow,  1915. 
Butter-fat  made  in  one  year,  1205.091  pounds. 


The  frame  of  the  animal  is  very  large.  Their  color  is  strongly 
marked  black  and  white  with  the  two  colors  in  separate  irregular 
patches.  In  some  animals  the  black  predominates  and  in  others, 
the  white.  In  milk  production  Holstein  cows  excel  those  of  all 
other  breeds.  The  butter-fat  percentage,  however,  is  small,  but 
with  the  large  quantities  of  milk,  the  total  butter-fat  during  a 
definite  period  of  time  often  equals  and  in  many  cases  exceeds 
that  from  animals  of  other  breeds.  The  color  of  the  milk  is 
somewhat  bluish  and  the  butter-fat  is  rather  soft  and  of  a 


358 


Effective  Farming 


whitish  color  in  contrast  to  the  yellow  butter-fat  of  the  Jerseys 
and  the  Guernseys.  Holstein  milk  is  sometimes  discriminated 
against  by  consumers  on  account  of  its  color  and  lack  of  rich- 
ness, but  dairymen  overcome  these  objections  by  having  in  the 
herd  a  few  Jersey  and  Guernsey  cows.  The  cut,  Fig.  145,  is 
of  Dutchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  the  Holstein  cow  that  made  the 
world's  record  of  all  breeds  for  butter-fat  in  1915.  Her  record 
for  the  year  is  1205.091  pounds  of  fat.  This  would  make  more 
than  1500  pounds  of  butter.  Her  record  for  milk  is  27,760 
pounds.  The  milk  from  the  farm  where  she  is  owned  sold  for 
10  cents  a  quart,  which  means  about  $1388  for  the  product. 

Ayrshire.  —  The  native  land  of  the  Ayrshire  breed  (Fig.  146) 
is  the  County  of  Ayr   in  the  southwestern   part  of   Scotland. 


rf*!^ 


Fig.  146.  —  Prize-winning  Ayrshire  cows  at  Panama  Exposition,  1915. 

The  animals  have  been  developed  by  selection  and  breeding  of 
the  native  cattle  of  the  country  with  a  probable  admixture 
of  the  blood  of  the  other  dairy  and  beef  breeds  of  England. 
Importations  of  these  cattle  into  the  United  States  have  been 
made  from  time  to  time,  but  the  animals  are  not  so  numerous 
as  those  of  the  other  dairy  breeds.  However,  many  herds 
are  to  be  found,  especially  in  New  York  and  New  England 
as  well  as  scattered  over  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  cattle 
are  of  medium  size,  the  cows  weighing  from  900  to  1100  pounds 
at  maturity  and  the  bulls  from  1400  to  1800  pounds.  The 
most  common  color  is  red  and  white  spotted,  with  white  pre- 
dominating. In  quantity  of  milk  the  Ayrshires  rank  next  to 
the  Holsteins;    in  butter-fat  the  milk  averages  3|  to  4  per 


I 


Dairy  Cattle  359 

cent.  The  fat  globules  of  the  milk  are  small  and  do  not  separate 
freely  from  the  milk,  and  the  cream  has  little  color.  The  milk 
is,  therefore,  better  suited  for  use  as  whole  milk  than  for 
butter-making.  It  is  stated  to  be  especially  desirable  for 
invalids  and  is  often  sold  to  hospitals. 

Dutch  Belted.  —  Like  the  Holsteins  the  Dutch  Belted  cattle 
originated  in  Holland,  where  they  are  known  as  the  Lakenfield 
cattle.  These  cattle  have  never  become  numerous  in  the 
United  States,  although  scattered  herds  are  found  in  all  of  the 
principal  dairy  districts.  The  animals  are  of  medium  size, 
mature  cows  averaging  about  1000  pounds  and  mature  bulls 
about  1500  pounds.  The  color  is  black  and  white,  a  broad 
belt  of  white  encircling  the  body  about  the  middle,  with  the 
other  parts  of  the  body  a  jet  black.  In  milk  production  the 
animals  are  fair,  but  the  quality  is  not  up  to  the  average. 

Brown  Swiss.  —  The  native  home  of  these  cattle  is  the  Can- 
ton Schwyz  in  Switzerland,  where  the  breed  has  been  developed 
for  dairy  purposes  from  the  native  cattle  found  there.  Scat- 
tered herds  are  found  in  the  United  States  and  where  they  have 
become  known  the  animals  have  made  a  favorable  impression 
for  dairy  purposes.  The  cattle  are  of  medium  size,  mature 
cows  weighing  from  1200  to  1400  pounds  and  mature  bulls  as 
high  as  1800  pounds  and  over.  The  color  is  a  grayish  brown, 
usually  darker  on  the  head,  the  neck,  legs,  and  hindquarters, 
shading  lighter  on  the  body.  Characteristic  markings  are  a 
mealy  band  around  the  muzzle,  a  light  stripe  across  the  lips 
and  up  and  down  the  sides  of  the  nostrils,  a  light-colored"  tuft 
of  hair  between  the  horns,  and  a  light-colored  stripe  on  the  back 
and  tail.  As  milk-producers  they  rank  with  the  average, 
many,  however,  making  very  good  individual  records.  The 
average  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  is  3|  to  4. 

186.  The  dairy  calf.  —  The  calf  requires  the  milk  of  the 
mother  for  the  first  few  days  after  birth.  The  milk,  which 
at  this  time  is  called  colostrum,  is  very  different  in  composi- 
tion from  normal   milk   and    performs  a  necessary  function 


360  Effective  Farming 

in  acting  as  a  purgative  to  rid  the  calf's  body  of  unnecessary 
matter.  The  milk  remains  abnormal  for  about  three  or  four 
days.  Usually  the  calf  is  left  with  its  mother  during  this 
period. 

Teaching  a  calf  to  drink.  —  After  the  calf  has  been  removed 
from  the  mother,  it  must  be  taught  to  drink  milk  from  a  pail. 
It  is  well  to  have  the  calf  hungry  when  about  to  give  it  a  lesson. 
In  nursing,  the  calf's  head  is  up  and  in  drinking  from  a  pail, 
it  is  down.  It  must,  therefore,  be  taught  to  drink  with  its 
head  down  and  the  animal  must  be  held.  The  usual  plan  is 
to  place  a  quart  or  so  of  milk  in  a  pail,  back  the  calf  into  a  corner 
of  the  yard  or  stall,  straddle  its  neck,  put  your  finger  in  its 
mouth,  and  hold  the  head  down  so  that  the  mouth  is  in  the 
milk.  The  calf  will  suck  the  finger  for  a  time,  but  will  soon 
learn  to  drink  the  milk.  For  the  first  four  days,  the  calf  should 
be  fed  three  times  a  day ;  after  this,  twice  a  day  is  often  enough. 
How  much  to  feed  varies  somewhat  with  the  weight  of  the 
calf.  One  weighing  about  sixty-five  pounds  or  less  should 
have  at  the  start  about  six  or  eight  pounds  of  milk  a  day  and 
larger  calves  in  proportion.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  over- 
feed a  calf.  The  milk  must  be  clean  and  warm.  Indigestion 
and  calf  scours  are  very  likely  to  result  if  cold  milk  is  fed. 
A  temperature  100°  F.  is  about  right. 

Kind  of  milk  for  calves.  —  A  calf  should  have  whole  milk 
for  at  least  ten  days,  after  which  it  may  be  fed  skim-milk. 
The  change  from  whole-  to  skim-milk  should  be  made  gradually. 
The  first  day  substitute  a  half  pound  of  skim-milk  for  a  half 
pound  of  whole  milk  and  keep  this  up  for  three  days,  then  in- 
crease a  pound  and  a  half  a  day  until  no  more  whole  milk  is 
fed.  A  calf  receiving  skim-milk  does  not  get  enough  fat  in  its 
feed  and  to  overcome  the  deficiency  dairymen  add  fat  to  the 
milk.  Usually  this  fat  is  from  linseed  meal,  a  product  rich  in 
this  material.  A  mush  is  made  by  mixing  the  meal  with  hot 
water.  For  the  first  day  a  tablespoonful  is  given,  after  which 
the  quantity  is  increased  up  to  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls. 


Dairy  Cattle  361 

When  the  calf  has  learned  to  eat  grain,  as  described  later,  the 
mush  need  not  be  fed. 

Grain  and  hay  for  calves.  —  While  the  change  from  whole- 
to  skim-milk  is  taking  place,  the  calf  should  be  taught  to  eat 
grain  and  hay.  A  feed  box  should  be  provided  and  a  small 
quantity  of  grain  placed  in  it.  At  first  it  may  be  necessary 
to  rub  a  little  grain  on  the  calf's  mouth  to  induce  it  to  eat, 
but  soon  it  will  learn  to  take  the  grain  regularly.  The  box 
must  be  kept  clean  and  any  grain  not  eaten  must  be  removed 
to  prevent  it  from  becoming  sour.  Ground  oats  with  the 
hulls  sifted  out,  ground  corn,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two  may  be 
fed. 

The  grain  ration  for  the  calf  up  to  the  time  it  is  six  months 
old  may  be  the  one  described  above,  or  some  additional  feed 
may  often  be  given  to  advantage.  A  good  grain  mixture  is 
three  parts  ground  oats,  three  parts  ground  corn,  one  part 
wheat  bran,  one  part  linseed  meal.  At  first  what  can  be  picked 
up  in  the  hand  is  sufficient  and  the  amount  should  be  increased 
as  the  calves  will  eat  it  up  clean.  At  two  months  of  age  a 
calf  should  eat  about  a  pound  of  grain  a  day  and  at  six  months, 
about  three  pounds. 

Hay  should  be  fed  at  the  same  time  that  the  grain  is  given. 
Fine  clean  alfalfa  or  clover  hays  are  good  for  this  purpose. 

Sanitation  in  calf  'pens.  —  The  quarters  where  calves  are 
kept  must  be  clean ;  otherwise  disease  is  almost  sure  to  occur. 
Clean  bedding  must  be  used  and  the  pens  cleaned  frequently. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  disinfect  them  occasionally.  White- 
wash, crude  carbolic  acid,  and  proprietary  stock  dips  are  good 
disinfectants  for  this  purpose.  It  is  well  to  spray  carbolic 
acid  on  the  walls  of  the  pens  and  follow  this  by  a  coat  of  white- 
wash. Many  of  the  proprietary  preparations,  such  as  kreso, 
lysol,  and  creolin,  are  good  disinfectants.  They  may  be  pur- 
chased from  druggists.  It  is  not  so  important  which  disin- 
fectant is  employed,  but  that  it  is  used  often  enough  to  keep  the 
pens  sanitary. 


362  Effective  Farming 

187.  Feeding  dairy  cows  in  summer.  —  Summer  and  winter 
feeding  of  dairy  cows  involve  different  problems.  In  summer 
pasturage  and  soiling  crops  are  available  and  thus  the  cows 
can  obtain  abundant  succulent  feed,  while  in  winter  they  are 
confined  to  stalls  and  as  fresh  grass  and  soihng  crops  are  not 
in  season,  they  must  be  supplied  succulent  feed  in  some  other 
way. 

Cows  on  pasture.  —  Grass  is  conducive  to  medium  produc- 
tion, but,  even  with  the  best  pastures,  supplementary  feeds 
are  necessary  for  the  highest  production.  For  medium  pro- 
duction, grass  will  supply  all  the  food  necessary,  as  it  is 
practically  a  balanced  ration  for  dairy  cows.  Supplement- 
ing pastures  with  grain  is  sometimes  advisable.  Eckles  of 
the  Missouri  Station  suggests  the  following  for  cows  of  the 
different  breeds : 

Jersey  cow  producing  — 

20  pounds  of  milk  daily 3  pounds  of  grain 

25  pounds  of  milk  daily 4  pounds  of  grain 

30  pounds  of  milk  daily 6  pounds  of  grain 

35  pounds  of  milk  daily 8  pounds  of  grain 

40  pounds  of  milk  daily 10  pounds  of  grain 

Holstein-Friesian  or  Ayrshire  cow  producing  — 

25  pounds  of  milk  daily 3  pounds  of  grain 

30  pounds  of  milk  daily 5  pounds  of  grain 

35  pounds  of  milk  daily  . 7  pounds  of  grain 

40  pounds  of  milk  daily 9  pounds  of  grain 

50  pounds  of  milk  daily  ...                ,     .      .  10  pounds  of  grain 

Concerning  these  quantities  and  the  rule  of  feeding,  the 
Dairy  Division  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture says : 

While  this  is,  of  course,  an  arbitrary  rule  and  variations  should  be 
made  to  suit  different  conditions  and  individual  cows,  it  is  in  accord       m 
with  good  feeding  practice  and  probably  is  as  good  a  rule  of  its  kind    'fl 
as  has  been  formulated. 

As  grain  mixtures  for  this  purpose,  the  Dairy  Division  sug- 
gests  the   following : 


Dairy  Cattle  363 

Mixture  No.  1 : 

Ground  oats 100  pounds 

Wheat  bran 100  pounds 

Corn  meal 50  pounds 

Mixture  No.  2 : 

Wheat  bran 100  pounds 

Corn  meal 100  pounds 

Cottonseed  meal        25  pounds 

Mixture  No.  3 : 

Corn-and-cob  meal 250  pounds 

Cottonseed  meal 100  pounds 

Mixture  No.  4 : 

Wheat  bran      .     .     . 100  pounds 

Gluten  feed 50  pounds 

Corn  meal 50  pounds 

Soiling  crops  and  silage  for  summer  feeding.  —  When  pastures 
become  short,  dairymen  often  resort  to  the  use  of  soiling  crops 
to  supply  the  green  feed.  For  this  purpose,  second-growth 
red  clover,  field  peas,  or  alfalfa  give  excellent  results.  The 
advantages  of  soiling  crops  are  chiefly  two :  large  quantities 
of  forage  can  be  grown  on  a  relatively  small  area  and  the  crops 
are  palatable  and  succulent.  One  disadvantage  is  the  large 
amount  of  labor  necessary  to  harvest  and  feed  the  crops.  A 
succession  of  crops  must  be  planned  in  order  that  green  feed 
be  available  continuously. 

With  a  silo  for  use  in  summer,  the  dairyman  has  a  supply  of 
succulent  feed  that  is  easily  handled  and  that  has  been  prepared 
the  previous  fall  at  a  minimum  of  expense  compared  with  soil- 
ing crops.  The  use  of  silage  as  summer  feed  for  dairy  cows  is 
increasing. 

188.  Feeding  dairy  cows  in  winter.  —  In  winter  feeding, 
some  important  factors  are  to  furnish  a  supply  of  abundant 
succulent  feed,  to  use  home-grown  feeds  as  far  as  available  and 
economical,  and  to  consider  the  cost  of  all  feeds  carefully  in 
order  to  make  a  profit. 

Succulent  feeds  for  winter.  —  Silage  and  roots  are  depended 
on  for  succulence  during  the  winter.  Of  the  two,  silage  is  the 
most  used.     Among  the  reasons  for  the  popularity  of  silage 


364"'  Effective  Farming 

for  feeding  dairy  cows,  Woodward  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  gives  the  following : 

1*.  Silage  is  the  best  and  cheapest  form  in  which  a  succulent  feed 
can  be  provided  for  winter  use. 

2.  An  acre  of  corn  can  be  placed  in  the  silo  at  a  cost  not  exceeding 
that  of  shocking,  husking,  grinding,  and  shredding. 

3.  Crops  can  be  put  into  the  silo  during  weather  that  could  not  be 
utilized  in  making  hay  or  curing  fodder ;  in  some  localities  this  is  an 
important  consideration. 

4.  A  given  amount  of  corn  in  the  form  of  silage  will  produce  more 
milk  than  the  same  amount  when  shocked  and  dried. 

5.  There  is  less  waste  in  feeding  silage  than  in  feeding  fodder. 
Good  silage  properly  fed  is  all  consumed. 

6.  Silage  is  very  palatable. 

7.  Silage,  like  other  succulent  feeds,  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon 
the  digestive  organs. 

8.  More  stock  can  be  kept  on  a  given  area  of  land  when  silage  is 
the  basis  of  the  ration. 

9.  On  account  of  the  smaller  cost  for  labor,  silage  can  be  used  for 
supplementing  pastures  more  economically  than  can  soiling  crops, 
unless  only  a  small  amount  of  supplementary  feed  is  required. 

10.  Converting  the  corn  crop  into  silage  clears  the  land  and  leaves 
it  ready  for  another  crop  sooner  than  if  the  corn  is  shocked  and 
husked. 

From  30  to  40  pounds  of  silage  is  the  usual  quantity  fed. 
The  rations  listed  below,  which  are  given  by  Woodward,  have 
been  found  to  be  satisfactory.  For  grain  mixtures,  see  the 
subsequent  pages. 

For  a  1300-pound  cow  yielding  40  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5 
per  cent : 

Pounds 

Silage 40 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay 10 

Grain  mixture        10 

For  the  same  cow  yielding  20  pounds  of  3.5  per  cent  milk : 

Pounds 

Silage 40 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay 5 

Grain  mixture 5 


Dairy  Cattle  365 

For  a  900-pound  cow  yielding  30  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk : 

Pounds 

Silage 30 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay     . 10 

Grain  mixture 11 

For  the  same  cow  yielding  15  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk : 

Pounds 

Silage 30 

Clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay 8 

Grain  mixture        5 

The  quantity  of  nutrients  grown  to  the  acre  in  root-crops  is 
small  compared  to  the  cost  of  production.  However,  they  have 
an  advantage  over  silage  for  small  herds  because  a  small  quantity 
can  be  preserved  and  fed  each  day,  whereas  with  silage  a  cer- 
tain minimum  number  of  cows  must  be  kept  in  order  to  make  it 
practicable,  since  enough  silage  must  be  removed  from  the  silo 
each  day  to  prevent  excessive  fermentation.  As  to  the  choice 
of  root-crops  to  grow  for  this  purpose,  mangels  furnish  a  desir- 
able feed  for  the  cows  and  make  the  greatest  yield.  Other 
kinds  of  beets  and  carrots  are,  also,  good  feeds.  Turnips  may 
be  fed,  but  always  after  milking,  as  they  impart  a  bad  flavor 
to  the  milk  if  fed  immediately  before  milking. 

Dry  roughages  for  winter.  —  The  best  dry  roughages  for  dairy 
cows  to  be  fed  in  connection  with  silage  or  roots  are  hays  from 
legumes  such  as  alfalfa,  red  clover,  crimson  clover,  alsike  clover, 
cowpeas,  soybeans,  or  field  peas  (grown  with  oats).  These 
hays  add  a  large  proportion  of  protein  to  the  ration  and  to  use 
them  cuts  down  the  cost  of  this  ingredient.  Corn  stover, 
grass,  or  grain  hays  are  often  fed  to  dairy  cows,  especially  when 
the  crops  can  be  grown  on  the  farm  where  fed,  but  as  these 
roughages  are  low  in  protein,  the  deficiency  must  be  supplied 
by  the  use  of  high-protein  concentrates.  The  usual  quantity 
of  dry  roughage  fed  is  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  a  day,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  silage. 

Concentrates  in  the  ration.  —  A  cow  cannot  eat  enough 
roughage  to  supply  all  the  nutrients  necessary  for  a  maximum 
flow  of  milk;    consequently  concentrates  in  the  form  of  grain 


366  Effective  Farming 

or  factory  by-products  must  be  added  to  the  ration.  The 
grains  most  commonly  fed  are  corn,  oats,  barley,  and  rye.  The 
by-producte  used  extensively  are  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings, 
linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  hom- 
iny feed,  brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  distillers'  grains,  beet- 
pulp,  molasses,  buckwheat  middlings,  cocoanut  meal,  and 
peanut  meal. 

In  making  up  a  grain  mixture  for  the  cattle,  many  factors 
must,  of  necessity,  be  considered.  A  few  simple  rules  and  direc- 
tions and  a  number  of  grain  mixtures  as  given  by  the  Dairy 
Division  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  are 
printed   herewith : 

1.  Make  up  the  mixture  to  fit  the  roughage  available.  With 
roughage  entirely  of  the  low-protein  class  the  grain  should  contain 
approximately  from  18  to  22  per  cent  of  protein,  while  with  exclusively 
high-protein  roughage  the  grain  ration  need  contain  only  about  13  to 
16  per  cent. 

2.  Select  grains  that  will  furnish  the  various  constituents,  especially 
protein,  at  the  least  cost,  using  home-grown  grains  if  possible. 

3.  Be  sure  that  the  mixture  is  light  and  bulky. 

4.  The  mixture  should  be  palatable. 

5.  See  that  the  grain  has  the  proper  physiological  effect  upon  the 
cow. 

Samples  of  Grain  Mixtures  to  Be  Fed  with  Various  Roughages 

with  low-protein  roughages 

Adapted  to  be  fed  with  corn  silage,  corn  stover,  timothy,  prairie, 
rowen,  or  millet  hays,  cottonseed  hulls,  etc. 

Mixture  1.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  18.4 : 

500  pounds  corn  meal. 

400  pounds  dried  distillers'  grains  (corn). 

200  pounds  gluten  feed. 

300  pounds  old  process  linseed  meal. 
Mixture  2.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  19.8 : 

100  pounds  corn  meal. 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

100  pounds  old  process  linseed  meal. 

200  pounds  wheat  bran. 


Dairy  Cattle  367 

Mixture  3.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  19.1 :  > 

200  pounds  of  barley. 

200  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 
.  100  pounds  alfalfa  meal. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 
Mixture  4.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  18.1 : 

200  pounds  corn  meal. 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

100  pounds  ground  oats. 

100  pounds  old  process  linseed  meal. 

WITH    HIGH-PROTEIN    ROUGHAGES 

Adapted  to  be  fed  with  clover,  alfalfa,  soybeans,  cowpea,  vetch,  or 
other  legume  hay. 

Mixture  5.  — Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  14.1 : 

400  pounds  corn  meal. 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

100  pounds  gluten  feed. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 
Mixture  6.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  14.9 : 

200  pounds  corn  meal. 

200  pounds  gluten  feed. 

100  pounds  malt  sprouts. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 
Mixture  7.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  13.7 : 

100  pounds  of  barley. 

200  pounds  cocoanut  meal. 

100  pounds  ground  oats. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 
Mixture  8.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  15.8  : 

300  pounds  corn-and-cob  meal. 

200  pounds  gluten  feed. 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal, 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 

WITH   COMBINATION    OF    HIGH-    AND    LOW-PROTEIN    ROUGHAGES 

Adapted  to  be  fed  with  silage  and  clover  or  other  legume  hay ;  corn 
stover  and  clover  or  other  legume  hay  ;  mixed  hay,  or  oat  and  pea  hay 
and  the  like. 

Mixture  9.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  16.3  : 
400  pounds  corn  meal. 
300  pounds  dried  distillers'  grains  (corn). 
100  pounds  gluten  feed. 
100  pounds  old  process  linseed  meal. 


368  Effective  Farming 

Mixture  10.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  16.1 : 

300  pounds  corn  meal. 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

100  pounds  old  process  linseed  meal. 

200  pounds  wheat  bran. 
Mixture  11.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  16.7 : 

200  pounds  corn  meal. 

100  pounds  peanut  meal  (with  hulls). 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 
Mixture  12.  —  Per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  16.4 : 

100  pounds  corn  meal. 

100  pounds  ground  oats. 

100  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

100  pounds  wheat  bran. 

The  mixtures  which  contain  linseed  meal  are  particularly  adapted 
for  use  when  no  succulence  is  in  the  ration. 

Quantities  of  grains  and  roughages  to  feed.  —  The  grain  ra- 
tion should  be  fed  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  fat  or  milk 
produced  by  the  cow.  A  good  rule  to  follow  is  to  feed  one 
pound  of  grain  a  day  for  every  pound  of  butter-fat  produced 
during  the  week.  Another  method  is  to  feed  one  pound  of 
grain  to  each  three  pints,  or  three  pounds,  of  milk  produced 
daily  by  the  cow,  except  in  case  of  a  cow  producing  forty 
pounds  or  more  of  milk,  when  one  pound  to  each  three  and  one- 
half  or  four  pounds,  or  pints,  of  milk  is  fed.  Usually  a  cow 
should  be  fed  all  the  roughage  she  will  eat  up  clean.  If,  how- 
ever, she  starts  to  become  fat,  the  quantity  should  be  lessened. 

These  rules  serve  only  as  guides  and  should  be  modified  ac- 
cording to  the  capacities  of  the  animals  to  convert  the  feed  into 
milk. 

189.  Water  and  salt  for  cows.  —  The  milking  cow  requires 
much  water.  About  87  per  cent  of  cow's  milk  is  water. 
The  water  should  be  pure ;  stale  water  is  distasteful  to  the 
animal  and  she  will  not  drink  enough  for  a  maximum  milk 
production.  When  cows  are  stabled  and  do  not  have  access  to 
running  water,  they  should  be  watered  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

More  than  most  animals,  the  dairy  cow  requires  abundant 


Dairy  Cattle 


369 


salt.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  an  ounce  in  the  feed  each  day 
and  also  to  have  rock  salt  in  boxes  in  the  yard  where  she  can 
lick  it  as  wanted.  If  a  cow  obtains  abundant  salt,  she  will 
drink  much  water,  which,  as  stated  above,  is  an  advantage. 

190.  Stables  for  dairy  cows.  —  If  a  cow  is  to  produce  the 
maximum  quantity  of  milk,  she  must  be  kept  in  clean,  com- 
fortable quarters.  The  essentials  of  such  quarters  are  that 
they  have  plenty  of  light,  plenty  of  fresh  air  with  no  drafts, 
be  convenient  for  the  attendants,  and  have  a  floor  that  can 
be  kept  clean.     This  does  not  mean  that  the  stables  must  be 


Fig.  147.  —  Dairy  barn  plentifully  supplied  with  windows. 


expensive,  because  good  practicable  stables  embodying  these 
features  can  and  are  built  at  a  relatively  low  cost. 

Light.  —  It  is  almost  impossible  to  have  too  many  windows 
in  a  cow  stable.  There  should  be  at  least  four  square  feet  of 
window-space  for  each  animal.  Sunlight  is  an  enemy  to  bac- 
teria, which  are  responsible  for  unhealthful,  impure  milk  and 
many  diseases  of  the  cattle.  In  the  stable  plentifully  supplied 
with  light,  it  is  easy  to  see  dirt  that  accumulates  and  get  rid 
of  it.  In  Fig.  147  is  shown  a  modern  dairy  stable  plentifully 
supplied  with  windows. 

Ventilation.  —  When  the  windows  can  be  kept  open,  the 
stable  can  be  ventilated  through  them,  but  in  cold  climates 
2b 


370 


Effective  Farming 


when  the  windows  cannot  be  kept  open  in  the  winter,  a  system 
of  intakes  and  outtakes  must  be  employed  to  provide  fresh 
air.  In  the  stable  shown  in  Fig.  147,  the  fresh  air  is  taken  in 
through  openings  in  the  side  walls  between  the  windows  and 
carried  through  flues  to  the  ceiling  in  front  of  the  cattle.  The 
foul  air  passes  out  through  flues  that  open  near  the  floor  and  is 
carried  to  the  outside  through  the  ventilators  on  the  roof. 

Convenience  of  arrangement.  —  In  a  dairy  stable,  convenience 
is  of  prime  importance,  for  the  work  can  then  be  efficiently 


^Mm. 


>.ii 


Fig.  148. 


A  modern  sanitary  dairy  barn.     Milk  from  a  barn  like  this  is 
very  likely  to  be  clean. 


and  economically  carried  on.  The  feed  should  be  accessible, 
the  stalls  should  be  placed  in  rows  so  that  feeding  and  other 
operations  are  conveniently  accomplished,  and  pure,  fresh, 
running  water  should  be,  if  possible,  piped  to  the  mangers  in 
front  of  the  cattle. 

Floors.  —  Concrete  floors  are  the  best  for  dairy  stables ; 
they  are  easy  to  keep  clean  and  are  sanitary.  The  floors  of 
the  stalls  may  be  of  some  softer  material,  like  wooden  blocks 
or  cork  brick,  but,  if  plenty  of  bedding  is  used  under  the  cattle, 
stall  floors  of  concrete  are  satisfactory. 


Dairy  Cattle  371 

Ties  for  the  cattle.  —  Stanchions  are  the  best  kind  of  ties  for 
cattle ;  they  are  preferable  to  a  rope  and  halter.  Many  good 
metal  and  wooden  stanchions  are  for  sale  by  dealers  in  stable 
equipment. 

A  modern  sanitary  dairy  stable.  —  An  interior  view  of  a  mod- 
ern sanitary  stable,  built  by  the  Government  at  the  Naval 
Academy,  is  shown  in  Fig.  148.  Notice  the  concrete  floor, 
the  cork  brick  in  the  stalls,  the  metal  stanchions,  the  feed 
trough  in  front  of  the  stalls,  and  the  large  number  of  windows. 
Stables  like  this  fulfill  all  the  requirements  for  the  production 
of  sanitary  milk. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  dairy  form? 

2.  Locate  the  three  wedges  of  a  dairy  cow. 

3.  Discuss  the  milk-giving  qualities  of  the  four  chief  breeds  of  dairy 
cattle. 

4.  Which  two  breeds  give  the  highest  percentage  of  butter-fat? 

5.  What  is  colostrum  and  what  is  its  function? 

6.  How  can  a  calf  be  taught  to  drink  milk  from  a  pail  ? 

7.  Why  should  milk  that  is  fed  to  calves  be  warm? 

8.  With  what  grains  can  pastures  for  dairy  cows  be  supplemented  ? 

9.  Why  is  silage  a  popular  succulent  dairy  feed? 

10.    Why  should  a  dairy  barn  be  well  supplied  with  windows? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Scoring  and  judging  dairy  cows.  —  Using  the  score-card  for  dairy 
cattle  printed  herewith,  score  and  judge  several  cows.  Follow  the 
method  outlined  for  scoring  and  judging  horses  in  a  previous  chapter. 
Whenever  you  see  a  dairy  cow  notice  her  good  and  her  bad  points. 

It  is  well  to  mention  here  that  dairy  type  alone  cannot  be  depended 
on  in  selecting  or  judging  cows  for  production.  The  only  way  to  have 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  milk-giving  quality  of  an  animal  is  to  keep 
a  record  of  the  milk  she  gives.  It  is  true,  however,  that  dairy  type, 
which  is  the  type  described  on  a  dairy  score-card,  generally  accom- 
panies a  larger  milk-giving  quality,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case  as 
shown  by  the  following : 

"  That  the  appearance  of  a  dairy  cow  cannot  be  depended  on  to 
indicate  her  production  of  milk  is  illustrated  by  a  demonstration  con- 


372 


Effective  Farming 


ducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  Department  with 
a  herd  of  nine  cows  at  the  National  Dairy  Show  held  in  1916  at  Spring- 
field, Mass. 

"  A  year's  record  of  milk  and  butter-fat  already  had  been  made  for  all 
the  cows  of  the  herd.  During  the  show,  complete  records  of  production 
and  feed  consumption  were  kept  and  in  every  case  the  previous  records 
were  duplicated.  Some  of  the  cows  were  of  poor  dairy  type,  yet  were 
good  producers ;  others  were  of  good  dairy  type,  yet  were  poor  pro- 
ducers ;  still  others  of  similar  appearance  had  greatly  different  records. 
Of  the  last-named  class  were  Nos.  8  and  9.  Many  experienced  stock- 
men selected  No.  9  as  the  better  of  the  two,  but  the  records  showed 
that  for  the  last  year  No.  8  gave  8,445  pounds  of  milk  and  346  of  fat 
compared  with  4,279  pounds  of  milk  and  198  of  fat  for  No.  9.  This 
served  as  an  object  lesson  that  good  dairy  type  is  not  always  associated 
with  large  production  and  that  poor  dairy  type  does  not  indicate  lack 
of  large  yield."  From  Weekly  News  Letter  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Score-card  for  Dairy  Cattle^ 

Breed Name 

General  appearance.  —  A  dairy  cow  should  weigh  not  less  than  800 
pounds,  have  large  capacity  for  feed,  a  dairy  temperament,  well 
developed  milk  organs,  fine  quality  and  perfect  health,  and  be  capable 
of  a  large  production  of  milk  and  butter-fat. 


Points 


Indication  of  capacity  for  feed,  25  points : 

Face,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  long ;  muzzle, 
clean-cut ;  mouth,  large ;  lips,  strong ;  lower 
jaws,  lean  and  sinewy 

Body,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front,  side 
and  top ;  ribs,  long,  far  apart,  and  well  sprung 
breast,  full  and  wide ;  flanks,  deep  and  full 

Back,  straight ;  chine,  broad  and  open ;  loin 
broad  and  roomy 

Hips  and  thurls,  wide  apart  and  high     .     .     . 
Indication  of  dairy  temperament,  25  points : 

Head,  clean-cut  and  fine  in  contour ;  eyes,  prom- 
inent, full,  and  bright 


10 

5 
5 


o  5 

O  w 

a 


^From  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  281. 


Dairy  Cattle 
Score-card  for  Dairy  Cattle  {Continued) 


373 


Points 


Neck,    thin,    long,    neatly   joined   to   head   and 

shoulders,  and  free  from  throatiness  and  dewlap 

Brisket,  lean  and  light 

Shoulders,  lean,  sloping,  nicely  laid  up  to  body ; 

points,  prominent ;   withers,  sharp      .... 
Back,  strong,  prominent  to  tail  head,  and  open 

jointed       

Hips,  prominent,  sharp,  and  level  with  back  .     . 

Thighs,  thin  and  incurving 

Tail,  fine  and  tapering 

Legs,  straight ;    shank,  fine 

Indication  of  well  developed  milk  organs,  25  points  : 
Rump,  long,  wide,  and  level ;  pelvis,  roomy  .  . 
Thighs,  wide  apart ;  twist,  high  and  open  ,  . 
Udder,  large,  pliable,  extending  well  forward  and 

high  up  behind;    quarters,  full,  symmetrical, 

evenly  joined,  and  well  held  up  to  body      .     . 
Teats,  plumb,  good  size,  symmetrical,  and  well 

placed 

Indications  of  strong  circulatory  system,  health, 

vigor,  and  milk  flow,  25  points : 

Eyes,  bright  and  placid 

Nostrils,  large  and  open 

Chest,  roomy 

Skin,  pliable ;  hair,  fine  and  straight ;  secretions, 

abundant  in  ear,  on  body,  and  at  end  of  tail   . 
Veins,  prominent  on  face  and  udder;   mammary 

veins,    large,    long,    crooked,    and  branching; 

milk  wells,  large  and  numerous 

Escutcheon,  wide  and  extending  high  up    .     .     . 
Total 


15 
4 


100 


o  5 
OS 


Remarks . 

Name  of  scorer Date 


REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  50-51, 


Bailey,  L.  H 

303-317.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Eckles,  C.  H.,  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production. 


The  Macmillan  Co. 


374  Effective  Farming 

Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Warren,  G.  F.,  Dairy  Farming.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Lane,  C.  B.,  Business  of  Dairying.     Orange  Judd  Co. 

Larson,  C.  W.,  and  Putney,  F.  S.,  Dairy  Cattle  Feeding  and  Manage- 
ment.   Wiby  and  Sons. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  106,  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  206,  Milk  Fever. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  473,  Tuberculosis. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  578,   Handling  and  Feeding  Silage. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  743,  The  Feeding  of  Dairy  Cows. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  777,  Feeding  and  Management  of  Dairy  Calves. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  49,  Cost  of  Raising 
a  Dairy  Cow. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  103  (United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture),  Records  of  Dairy  Cows  in  the  United  States. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  131,  Designs  for  Dairy  Buildings. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

DAIRYING 

Composition  of  milk. 
Testing  of  milk  for  fat. 
Separation  of  cream  from  milk. 
Bacteria  in  milk. 
Production  of  sanitary  milk. 

Keeping  foreign  matter  out  of  the  milk. 

Kind  of  utensils  for  milk. 

Care  during  the  milking. 

Care  of  milk  in  the  milk  house. 
Pasteurization  of  milk. 

The  dairy  industry  is  one  of  the  most  important  divisions 
of  agriculture.  One  has  ])ut  to  visit  a  milk-receiving  station 
in  any  of  the  large  cities  and  see  train  after  train  of  milk  com- 
ing to  the  market  to  realize  something  of  the  magnitude  of 
dairying  as  now  conducted.  When  we  consider  the  vast  quan- 
tities of  butter,  cheese,  ice  cream,  and  condensed  milk  that 
are  consumed,  we  comprehend  still  more  the  extent  of  the 
industry.  It  is  all  the  more  unfortunate,  therefore,  that  much 
of  the  milk  is  produced  under  unsanitary  conditions,  and  it  is 
this  aspect  of  the  subject  that  is  stressed  in  the  ensuing  chapter. 

191.  Composition  of  milk.  —  The  average  composition  of 
milk  as  determined  by  more  than  five  thousand  analyses  made 
by  the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva,  is  as 
follows : 

Water 87.1  per  cent 

Butter-fat 3.9  per  cent 

Protein  I  ^ff^"\ 2.5  per  cent 

[  Albumm .7  per  cent 

Milk-sugar 5.1  per  cent 

Ash n_  per  cent 

Total 100.0  per  cent 

375 


376 


Effective  Farming 


Fig.   149.  —  A  four-bottle  hand  power  tester. 


Milk  from  different  cows  varies  considerably  from  this  aver- 
age, however,  the  greatest  difference  being  in  the  percentage 
of  butter-fat,  some  cows  giving  milk  low  in  fat  and  others  high 

in  fat.  The  parts  of 
milk  other  than  water 
are  known  as  milk 
soUds,  or  as  total 
solids,  and  the  solids 
other  than  butter- 
fat,  as  solids  not  fat. 
The  milk  minus  the 
fat  is  known  as  the 
milk-serum,  or  as  the 
milk-plasma.  As 
shown  by  its  composition,  milk  contains  all  the  five  food 
groups  and  is  a  balanced  food  product. 

The  fat  of  milk  rises  as  cream.  It  is  an  emulsion  of  globules 
so  small  that  a  single  drop  contains  more  than  a  hundred 
million.  Even  from  the  same  cow  the 
globules  are  not  all  of  the  same  size; 
some  may  be  two  or  three  times  as  large 
as  others.  The  average  size  depends 
largely  on  the  breed  of  cow. 

The  protein  is  chiefly  of  two  kinds,  casein 
and  albumin.  Casein  is  the  chief  constitu- 
ent of  cheese.  Albumin  of  milk  is  some- 
what like  the  white  of  egg.  When  whey  is 
heated  to  160°  F.,  the  albumin  coagulates. 
Milk-sugar,  the  carbohydrate  of  milk, 
is  less  sweet  than  cane-sugar.  It  is  used 
extensively  for  the  modification  of  cow's 
milk  for  infants  and  is  the  most  readily  digested  of  all  sugars. 
The  ash,  or  mineral  matter  of  milk,  consists  chiefly  of  the 
chlorides  and  phosphates  of  sodium,  potassium,  magnesium, 
and  calcium. 


Fig.  150. —  a  type  of 
steam  tester  with  an 
arrangement  for  heat- 
ing the  water  used  in 
the  test. 


Dairying 


377 


192.  Testing  of  milk  for  fat.  —  It  is  important  that  the 
dairyman  know  the  percentage  of  fat  contained  in  the  milk, 
for  milk  is  often  rated  in  value  according  to  its  fat-content. 
To  measure  the  fat,  use  is  made  of  a  centrifuge  known  as  a 
Babcock  tester,  which  method  was  originated  in  1890  by  S. 
M.  Babcock,  Chief  Chemist  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station.  The  Babcock  milk  tester  is  used 
also  to  determine  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
cream,  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey. 
I  ^3  An  outfit   for  making   the  test  consists 


<^ 


0 
5 

B 


<!>-«55i!^ 


<^^> 


Fig.  151.  — Type  of 
Babcock  test  bottle 
conforming  to  the 
requirements  of  the 
United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Standards, 
and  showing  grad- 
uations. 


15 


0 


Fig.  152.  —  Types  of  cream  bottles  conforming 
to  the  requirements  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Standards. 


essentially  of  a  centrifuge,  a  pipette,  an  acid  measure,  whole- 
milk  bottles,  cream-bottles,  skim-milk  bottles,  cream  scales,  and 
dividers.  A  centrifuge  is  a  horizontal  wheel  fitted  with  swinging 
cylindrical  cups.  A  drawing  of  a  small  hand  power  four-bottle 
tester  is  shown  in  Fig.  149,  a.  The  wheel  is  rotated  by  means 
of  a  gear  that  is  turned  in  hand  power  machines  by  power  ap- 
plied at  the  handle.     When  the  wheel  is  rotated  the  cups  as- 


378 


Effective  Farming 


sume  a  horizontal  position  with  the  openings  pointing  toward 
the  center  of  the  wheel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  149,  h.  A  steam-power 
tester  is  shown  in  Fig.  150. 

The  neck  of  a  whole-milk  bottle  is  graduated  to  read  to 
.1  per  cent  (Fig.  151),  that  of  a  cream  bottle 
to  .5  per  cent  (Fig.  152),  and  that  of  a  skim- 
milk  bottle  to  .01  per  cent.  The  skim-milk 
bottles  are  provided  with  a  double  neck,  a 
large  one  through  which  the  milk  is  poured 
into  the  bottle  and  a  small  one  that  is  gradu- 
ated for  the  reading  of  the  percentages  of  fat. 

The  pipette  (Fig.  153)  is  used  for  measuring 
the  milk  to  be  tested.  It  holds  17.6  cubic 
centimeters  (abbreviation  c.c.)  to  a  line  etched 
on  the  glass  in  the  neck.  The  quantity  of 
milk  required  for  a  test  is  17.5  c.c,  but  as 
about  1  c.c.  will  adhere  to  the  sides,  the  pipette 
is  made  1  c.c.  over  measure.  The  weight  of 
milk  required  is  18  grams ;  17.5  c.c.  of  normal 
milk  is  equivalent  to  18  grams.  The  acid 
measure  (Figs.  154  and  155)  holds  17.5  c.c. 
of  sulfuric  acid,  the  quantity- 
used  in  measur-  required  for  the  test.  In  fac- 
Ba\c'Sck  4".t.*''  tories  where  many  samples  are 
tested,  large  acid  bottles  or 
burettes  (Figs.  156  and  157),  fitted  with  pinch 
cocks  and  arranged  to  measure  a  number  of 
charges  of  17.5  cc.  of  acid  are  used;  they  are 
more  convenient  than  the  individual  measures. 

In  testing  cream,  scales  are  used  to  weigh  Fig.  154.  — Simple 
the  quantity  (18  grams)  required  (Fig.  158).  -^^^^  graduate. 
Commercial  sulfuric  acid  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82  to 
1.83  is  used  in  making  the  tests.  If  an  acid  with  a  specific 
gravity  less  than  1.82  is  employed  the  milk  particles  are  not 
properly  burned  and  particles  of  curd  are  likely  to  appear  in 


Fig.  153.  — Pipette 
holding  17.6  cu- 
bic   centimeters 


(crP 


Dairying  379 

the  fat.  An  acid  that  has  over  1.83  specific  gravity  has  a 
tendency  to  char  the  fat  and  should  not  be  used.  The  acid 
must  be  kept  in  glass 

bottles  that  are  fittec]  

with  glass  stoppers. 

In   making   a    test, 
these  directions  should  ^      .^t,       .   ■,.  ,       ^-iri 

Fig.  155.  —  A  dipper  made  entirely  of  glass  and 
be     followed:     Mix       holding   17.5  cubic  centimeters  for  measuring 

thoroughly  the  sample      *^^  ^°^'^- 

to  be  tested,  place  the  pipette  in  the  milk,  and  suck  milk  into 

the  tube  until  it  is  above  the  level  of  the  etched  line  on  the 
neck.  Place  the  forefinger  over  the  end  of  the 
pipette  and  the  milk  will  remain  in  the  tube.  Re- 
move the  pressure  of  the  finger  slightly  and  allow 
the  milk  to  run  out  of  the  end  of  the  pipette  until 
it  is  on  a  level  with  the  etched  line,  thus  leaving 
17.6  c.c.  of  milk  in  the  pipette.  Place  the  end  of 
the  pipette  in  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle  and  allow 
the  milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle.  Fig.  159  shows 
the  correct  way  to  hold  the  bottle  and  the  pipette. 
If  they  are  both  held  in  a  vertical 
position  the  milk  is  almost  sure  to 
spill  (Fig.  160).  Next,  fill  the  acid 
measure  with  acid  (17.5  c.c.)  and 
AAA  pour  it  into  the  test  bottle.  Slant 
II  \J  the  bottle  as  before.  If  the  acid  has 
U  been  poured  into  the  milk  carefully, 

Fig.  156.—    the  two  liquids  will  be  in  two  layers 
Jir!^^i?    in   the   bottle.     Mix   the   acid   and 

I  or   IlltrciS" 

uring  the    milk  by  gently  rotating  the  bottle. 


^^^  ■  Continue  this  rotating  until  all  pieces  Fig.  157.— Acom- 

of  curd  that  form  in  the  mixture  are  dissolved.      ^^^^^  ^°**^®  ^^^ 

,  .  acid  measure. 

Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  a  few  minutes,  then 

rotate  the  bottle  again  for  a  short  time.     Place  the  bottles  in 

the  tester  in  an  upright  position.     The  tester  should  be  full  of 


380 


Effective  Farming 


Fig.  158.  —  Type  of  knife- 
edge  cream  balance. 


bottles.     If  there  are  not  enough  samples,  fill  the  unused  cups 
with  test  bottles  of  water.     Turn  the  handle  of  the  tester  for  four 

minutes  at  the  speed  indicated  for 
the  machine  in  use.  Add  moderately- 
hot  water  to  the  bottle  to  bring  the 
fat  up  to  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  A 
pipette  is  convenient  for  this.  Clean, 
soft  water  should  be  used.  If  the 
water  available  contains  much  lime, 
add  to  it  a  few  drops  of  sulfuric  acid 
to  neutralize  the  lime.  After  the  water 
is  added,  put  the  bottles  back  in  the 
machine  and  whirl  them  again  for  one  minute.  Add  hot  water 
as  before  until  the  fat  stands  at  about  the  7  per  cent  mark  in 

the  neck  of  the  bottle.     Place 

the    bottles    in    the    machine 

again,  whirl  for  one  minute,  and 

read  the  percentage  of  fat,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  161.     The  tem- 
perature of  the  sample  when 

read  should  be  about  140°  F. 

To  calculate  the  reading,  sub- 
tract the  reading  at  a  (Fig.  161) 

from  that  at  6.     A  convenient 

way  to  determine  the  reading 

is  to  place  the  points  of  a  pair 

of  dividers  at  the  top  and  the 

bottom  of  the  fat-column  (see 

Fig.  162) ;   then,  being  careful 

to  keep  this  same  distance  be- 
tween the  points,  slide  them 

down  until  the  lower  one  is  at 

the  zero  mark,  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines.     The  upper  one  will  give  the  reading  direct. 
The  methods  of  testing  cream,  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and 


Fig.  159.  —  The 
right  way  of 
adding  milk  to 
the  test  bottle. 
(Farrington 
and  Wall,  Test- 
ing Milk  and 
Its  Products.) 


Fig.  160.  — The 
wrong  way  of 
adding  the  milk 
to  the  test  bot- 
tle. (Farring- 
ton and  Wall, 
Testing  Milk 
and  Its  Prod- 
ucts.) 


Dairying 


381 


whey  differ  in  a  few  details  from  that  of  testing 
whole  milk.  When  testing  cream,  the  sample 
is  weighed,  18  grams  being  the  quantity  used. 
About  17.5  c.c.  of  acid  is  added  to  each  sample, 
but  the  quantity  is  varied  slightly  with  the  rich- 
ness of  the  cream,  rich  cream  requiring  slightly 
less  acid  than  thinner  cream.  Experience  will 
aid  in  determining  the  exact  quantity  to  be  used. 
Be  careful  when  rotating  the  bottles  after  adding 
the  acid ;  the  fat  will  burn  if  the  rotating  is  too 
vigorous.  After  the  acid  is  added  let  the  sample 
stand  four  minutes  before  placing  it  in  the 
tester.  The  other  operations  are  the  same  as 
for  whole  milk.  In  reading  the  percentage  of 
fat,  read  as  shown  in  Fig.  163.     When  testing 


- — s 

^2.-_Z 

"::::— o 


Fig.  161.— 
Method  of  read- 
ing fat  column 
in  milk  testing. 
Read  from  a  to 
&,  not  from  a 
to  c,  nor  a  to  d. 


Fig. 


162.  —  Dividers  for  measuring  length 
of  fat  column. 


skim-milk, 
buttermilk, 
or  whey,  use 
20  c.c.  of  acid.  Place  each 
bottle  in  the  tester  with  the 
filling  tube  toward  the  cen- 
ter. This  is  to  prevent  any 
fat  from  being  caught  be- 
tween the  tube  and  the 
sides  of  the  bottles  after 
the  whirling  in  the  tester. 
Turn  the  tester  a  little  faster 
than  for  whole  milk.  If 
there  is  a  layer  of  curd  at 
the  bottom  of  the  fat  column 
do  not  include  it  in  the  read- 
ing. Read  the  fat  column 
as  for  whole  milk.  A  pair 
of  dividers  is  especially  use- 
ful for  these  readings. 


382 


Effective  Farming 


193.  Separation  of  cream  from  milk.  —  The  best  way  to 
separate  cream  from  whole  milk  is  to  use  a  centrifugal  cream 
separator.  The  saving  of  butter-fat  by  the  use  of  one  of  these 
machines  soon  pays  for  its  cost  and  upkeep.  By  adjustment  of 
the  screw  on  the  separator,  cream  of  any  desired  richness,  up 
to  a  certain  limit,  can  be  produced.  The  milk  passes  into  a 
bowl  on  the  machine  and  the  bowl  is  revolved 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  By  reason  of  centrifugal 
force,  the  heavier  part  of  the  milk  —  the  skim- 
milk — ^is  thrown  toward  the  outside  and  the 
lighter  part  —  the  fat  with  some  milk  —  is 
crowded  toward  the  center  of  the  bowl.  Near 
the  side  of  the  bowl  at  the  top  is  an  opening 
through  which  the  skim-milk  passes  and  near 
the  center  of  the  bowl,  one  through  which  the 
cream  passes.  The  skim-milk  and  the  cream 
are  carried  from  the  separator  through  spouts 
and  into  pails  or  cans  placed  near  the  machine. 
194.  Bacteria  in  milk.  —  Most  of  the  fermenta- 
tions that  occur  in  milk  are  due  to  bacteria. 
Not  all  bacteria  are  harmful,  in  fact  many  are 
useful,  but  milk  containing  large  numbers  should 
be  looked  on  with  suspicion,  as  many  undesirable 
bacteria  are  likely  to  be  present  with  the  bene- 
ficial ones.  Bacteria  reproduce  very  rapidly 
at  high  temperatures  and  more  slowly  at  low 
temperatures.  At  70°  F.,  the  growth  is  rapid, 
at  50°  F.,  it  is  retarded,  and  at  40°  F.,  it  is  very  slow.  Thus  in 
milk  not  properly  cooled,  the  bacteria  multiply  very  rapidly. 
This  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  164.  One  of  the  most 
numerous  kinds  of  bacteria  in  milk  causes  lactic  acid  to  form. 
The  bacteria  break  down  the  milk-sugar  and  produce  lactic 
acid  or,  in  other  words,  cause  the  milk  to  become  sour.  There 
are  several  types  of  lactic-acid  bacteria ;  those  that  grow  under 
70°  F.  are  useful,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  and 


w^ 

— 

— 

— 

-6 

^^^: 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

f 

— 

—a 

— 

— 

■ v^ 

Fig.  163.— 
Method  of  read- 
ing fat  column 
in  cream  test- 
ing. Read  from 
a  to  c,  not  a 
to  b,  nor  from  a 
tod. 


Dairying  383 

cheese.  The  rich  flavor  of  these  products  is  due  largely  to 
these  bacteria.  If  milk  sours  at  a  high  temperature,  an  unde- 
sirable type  is  likely  to  grow.  These  produce  gas  as  well  as 
lactic  acid  and  are  responsible  for  so-called  gassy  curd  when 
the  milk  is  made  into  cheese.  Those  of  another  type  destroy 
the  casein  and  albumin  of  the  milk  and  cause  putrefaction  and 
bad  odors.     This  type  is,  of  course,  undesirable. 

Disease  germs  are  often  carried  in  the  milk,  especially 
those  causing  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis,  diphtheria,  and 
scarlet  fever.  Milk  may  be- 
come contaminated  by  bac- 
teria from  the  udder  itself, 
but  this  contamination  is 
usually  harmless  unless  the 
udder  is  affected  with  tuber  -  "^^i 

culosis,  garget,  or  some  form   ^  o 

of  inflammation.    The  great- 
est  number   of   bacteria   in 

milk  come  from  the  dust  of    Fig.    164.  — This    diagram    shows     the 

the  air,  the  dirt  and  manure      rapidity  with  which  bacteria  multiply 

,1  ,  I  1    n       1  «  in  milk  not  properly  cooled.     A  single 

on   the  udder  and    flanks   Ot  bacterium   (a)    in   24    hours   multiplied 

the  cow,  from  the  clothes  of  <^o  5  ih)  in  milk  kept  at  50°  F. ;   (c)  repre- 

,  i_         -i,  J  -.  ,  sents  the  number  that  developed  from  a 

the  milker,  and  trom  unclean  single  bacterium  kept  24  hours  at  70°  F. 
utensils.     Cleanliness  about 

a  stable  and  dairy-house  is,  therefore,  a  very  important  means 
of  reducing  the  number  of  bacteria  in  milk. 

195.  Production  of  sanitary  milk.  —  Healthy  cows  are  most 
essential  to  the  production  of  sanitary  milk.  Milk  from  dis- 
eased cows  is  likely  to  contain  disease-producing  bacteria. 
At  least  once  a  year  the  cows  should  be  tested  for  tuberculosis 
by  a  competent  veterinarian  and  all  animals  that  show  reac- 
tion should  be  removed  from  the  herd.  All  cows  added  to 
the  herd  should  be  tuberculin-tested.  If  at  any  time  the  cows 
give  slimy,  ropy,  watery,  or  otherwise  abnormal  milk,  it  should 
not  be  used. 


384 


Effective  Farming 


Keeping  foreign  matter  out  of  the  milk.  —  Dust,  hair,  and 
manure  should,  by  all  means,  be  kept  out  of  the  milk.  To 
do  this  certain  precautions  must  be  taken.  The  cows  must 
be  groomed  and  the  hair  clipped  from  the  udders,  flanks,  and 
tails.  They  must  not  be  fed,  bedded,  or  groomed  immediately 
before  milking,  as  these  operations  fill  the  stable  with  dust  and 
bacteria.  The  stalls  must  be  kept  clean  and  manure  and 
soiled  bedding  removed  from  the  stall  frequently.  The  stable 
must  be  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

Kind  of  utensils  for  milk.  —  All  utensils  that  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  milk  should  be  of  durable,  smooth,  non-absorbent 

material.  Steriliza- 
tion of  these  uten- 
sils is  important. 
All  seams  in  cans 
or  pails  should  be 
flushed  with  solder. 
Rusty  or  battered 
utensils  should 
never  be  used,  be- 
cause it  is  impossible 
to  clean  impurities 
from  the  rough  sur- 
faces. It  is  neces- 
sary, when  washing 
the  vessels,  to  rinse 
them  first  in  cold  or 
lukewarm  water  to 
remove  the  milk, 
then  in  hot  water 
that  contains  an  alkali  Uke  sal  soda,  followed  by  a  thorough 
rinsing  in  clean  hot  water,  after  which  they  should  be  set 
aside  to  dry.  A  brush  for  washing  the  utensils  is  more  sani- 
tary than  a  cloth. 

Care  during  the  milking.  —  Considerable  care  is  necessary 


~  ttuBKI^^   ^^ 

Fig.  165.  —  Clean  white  suits  and  small-top  milk 
pails  used  in  a  sanitary  dairy. 


Dairying 


385 


during  the  process  of  milking.  Before  starting  to  milk,  the 
udder,  flanks,  and  bellies  should  be  carefully  wiped  with  a 
clean  damp  cloth  to  remove  any  loose  hairs  or  dust  that  might 
fall  into  the  pail.  Following  this,  the  milker  should  put  on 
clean  overalls  (Fig.  165)  and  wash  his  hands.  Small-topped 
pails  should  be  used,  experiments  showing  that  milking  in 
such  pails  safeguards  the  milk  and  reduces  the  number  of 
bacteria.  A  pail  like  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  166  may  be 
secured  by  soldering  a  hood 
on  an  ordinary  pail. 

The  milking  should  be  done 
with  dry  hands.  The  prac- 
tice of  milking  with  wet  hands 
is  an  undesirable  habit,  not 
only  because  of  the  drops  of 
water  that  fall  into  the  milk, 
but  because  of  the  possibility 
of  causing  chapped  teats. 
Before  milking  each  cow,  the 
milker  should  wash  his  hands. 

Care  of  milk  in  the  milk-house.  —  After  each  cow's  milk  is 
drawn  it  should  be  carried  at  once  to  the  milk-house,  weighed, 
recorded,  sampled  for  the  composite  test,  if  one  is  to  be  made, 
strained,  and  cooled.  The  milk  after  being  cooled  should  be 
bottled  at  once  and  placed  in  a  cold  room,  or  it  should  be  put 
in  cans  and  placed  in  a  tank  of  cold  water.  The  dairy-house 
should  be  so  constructed  as. to  fulfill  sanitary  requirements  and 
still  be  practical  and  inexpensive. 

196.  Pasteurization  of  milk.  —  Whenever  there  is  any  doubt 
about  the  purity  of  raw  milk,  it  should  be  pasteurized.  This 
can  be  done  by  heating  to  a  temperature  somewhat  less  than 
boiling  (145°  F.  is  proper),  retaining  this  temperature  for  a  time, 
then  cooling  it  immediately.  Heating  the  milk  to  145°  F.  and 
holding  it  at  this  temperature  for  twenty  minutes  will  usually 
.    2c 


Fig.  166. 


Open  and  small-top  milk 
pails. 


386  Effective  Farming 

be  sufficient  to  pasteurize  it.  Bacteria  that  cause  tuberculosis 
and  other  harmful  bodies  are  killed  by  pasteurization.  Not  all 
of  the  lactic-acid  bacteria  are  killed,  however,  and  the  milk 
will  sour,  but  not  so  quickly  as  dirty  raw  milk.  Pasteurized 
milk  should  be  consumed  within  about  twenty-four  hours 
after  it  has  been  heated,  since  a  long  time  before  it  sours  it  is 
likely  to  become  dangerous  as  human  food.  This  is  because 
in  raw  milk,  certain  putrefactive  bacteria  are  kept  from  grow- 
ing by  the  acidity  of  the  milk,  but  in  pasteurized  milk,  since 
it  does  not  sour  quickly,  these  bacteria  are  likely  to  become 
active  and,  if  the  milk  is  old,  cause  it  to  become  impure  or 
even  dangerous  for  use. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  the  producer  of  milk  know  the  percentage  of  fat 
it  contains? 

2.  How  is  milk  tested  for  fat  ? 

3.  State  the  advantages  of  the  centrifugal  cream  separator. 

4.  What  causes  milk  to  ferment? 

5.  Why  should  milk  be  cooled  soon  after  milking? 

6.  State  some  beneficial  effects  of  bacteria  in  milk ;  some  harmful 
ones. 

7.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  to  exclude  disease-producing 
bacteria  from  milk? 

8.  Describe  briefly  how  sanitary  milk  can  be  produced. 

9.  Why  should  flies  be  kept  out  of  the  dairy? 

10.    How  is  milk  pasteurized?     Why  should  pasteurized  milk  be 
used  within  about  twenty-four  hours  after  pasteurization? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Separating  cream  from  milk.  —  Secure  a  centrifugal  separator 
and  about  five  gallons  of  fresh  whole  milk.  Take  the  separator  apart 
and  put  it  together  again,  studying  its  construction.  Notice  the  cream 
screw.  When  a  rich  cream  is  desired  the  screw  is  turned  toward  the 
center  of  the  bowl,  when  a  thin  cream  is  wanted  it  is  turned  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  Read  carefully  the  directions  furnished  by  the  manu- 
facturer about  operating  the  cream  screw.  Warm  the  milk  until  it  is 
about  85°  F.  and  run  it  through  the  separator.     Milk  separates  best 


Dairying  387 

at  about  this  temperature.  Take  samples  of  the  cream  and  the  skim- 
milk  and  save  them  for  testing.  Mix  the  milk  and  cream  that  have 
been  separated,  heat  to  85°  F.,  change  the  adjustment  of  the  cream 
screw,  and  run  the  milk  through  the  machine  again.  Take  samples  as 
before  for  testing.  Change  the  adjustment  of  the  cream  screw,  mix 
the  milk  and  cream,  and  separate  again.  Under  favorable  conditions 
a  separator  should  not  leave  more  than  ,1  per  cent  of  cream  in  the 
skim-milk  and  .05  per  cent  is  what  operators  should  try  to  secure. 

2.  Testing  for  butter-fat.  —  Test  for  butter-fat  the  samples  of  milk 
and  cream  secured  in  the  previous  exercise.  Follow  carefully  the 
directions  as  given  in  the  chapter.  If  there  is  not  a  Babeock  testing 
Qutfit  among  the  school  equipment,  it  will  usually  be  possible  to  borrow 
one  from  some  one  in  the  neighborhood.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  a 
creamery  or  skimming  station  should  be  visited  at  a  time  when  the 
cream  is  being  tested  and  the  process  observed  closely.  Small  testing 
outfits  can  be  purchased  cheaply  from  creamery  supply  houses,  dealers 
in  agricultural  laboratory  supplies,  and  catalog  houses. 

3.  Impurities  in  milk.  —  To  test  the  quantity  of  impurities  in  milk, 
secure  several  quarts  from  different  sources,  a  roll  of  absorbent  cotton, 
a  small  piece  of  wire  screen,  several  empty  quart  bottles,  a  dairy  ther- 
mometer, and  a  sauce  pan.  Place  the  wire  screen  over  the  mouth  of 
one  of  the  empty  quart  milk  bottles,  spread  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton 
over  the  screen,  heat  one  of  the  quarts  of  milk  to  a  temperature  of 
about  100°  F.  and  pour  it  through  the  absorbent  cotton  into  the  bottle. 
Remove  the  cotton  and  mark  it  to  designate  the  source  of  milk  that 
was  poured  through  it.  Follow  same  instructions  with  other  quarts  of 
milk.  Examine  the  pieces  of  cotton.  Unclean  milk  will  leave  a  stain 
on  the  cotton,  and  the  dirtier  the  milk,  the  darker  will  be  the  stain. 
Add  varying  quantities  of  dust  to  the  different  lots  of  milk,  repeat 
the  experiment,  and  observe  the  results.  Many  creameries  and  cheese 
factories  make  sediment  tests  of  the  milk  of  their  patrons.  If  such  tests 
are  made  at  local  factories,  ask  to  see  the  disks  from  different  patrons. 

4.  Cleanliness  of  dairy  utensils.  —  The  equipment  required  for  this 
exercise  is  two  pint  jars  with  covers,  a  quart  of  fresh  milk,  a  tooth  pick, 
and  a  dairy  utensil  that  has  unflushed  seams.  Fill  the  pint  jars  with 
milk,  scrape  material  from  the  seams  of  the  utensil  with  the  tooth  pick, 
and  put  this  dirt  in  one  of  the  jars,  but  not  in  the  other.  If  no  utensil 
with  unflushed  seams  is  available,  place  some  milk  in  a  tin  can  or  cup 
that  has  unflushed  seams,  allow  the  milk  to  sour,  pour  it  out,  then 
scrape  the  seams.  Place  the  covers  loosely  over  both  jars  and  set  them 
away  about  five  or  six  hours  where  the  temperature  is  anywhere  from 
70  to  90°  F.     At  the  end  of  the  time  notice  carefully  the  odor  and 


388  Effective  Farming 

taste  of  the  milk  in  the  two  jars.     Examine  the  milk  pails  and  cans  at 
local  hardware  stores.     Are  they  made  with  flushed  seams? 

5.  Absorption  of  odors  by  milk.  —  For  this  exercise  you  will  require 
a  banana,  three  quarts  of  milk,  two  shallow  pans,  two  empty  quart 
milk  bottles,  a  tight  box  in  which  the  pan  can  be  placed,  and  a  cover  for 
the  box.  The  first  part  of  the  exercise  is  conducted  in  the  school  labor- 
atory. A  banana  is  used  as  the  source  of  the  odor.  Pour  a  quart  of 
milk  into  one  of  the  pans  and  place  the  pan  in  the  box.  Remove  the 
skin  from  the  banana  and  lay  the  fruit  in  the  box  near  the  pan  of  milk. 
Place  the  cover  on  the  box  and  keep  it  closed  for  twenty-four  hours. 
At  the  end  of  the  time  open  the  box  and  examine  the  milk  for  odor. 

The  second  part  of  the  exercise  is  conducted  on  some  dairy  farm  in 
the  neighborhood.  Visit  the  farm  during  milking  time  and  as  soon  as 
a  cow  has  been  milked  pour  a  quart  of  milk  in  the  shallow  pan  and  fill 
the  quart  bottles  with  milk  from  the  same  source.  Leave  the  pan  un- 
covered in  a  stable  for  several  hours.  Remove  the  quart  bottle  from 
the  stable  at  once,  aerate  the  milk  by  pouring  it  several  times  from 
one  bottle  to  another,  place  a  cap  on  the  bottle,  and  set  it  away  in  a  cold 
place  for  ten  to  twelve  hours.  At  the  end  of  the  time  have  the  two 
lots  of  milk  brought  to  the  school-house  and  examine  them  for  odor. 
The  way  to  avoid  the  odor  of  the  stable  in  milk  is  to  keep  the  stable 
clean  and  to  remove  the  milk  to  another  building  soon  after  the  milking 
of  the  cows.  Where  would  you  be  most  likely  to  get  a  cowy  odor  in 
milk,  in  a  clean,  well  ventilated  stable,  or  in  a  dirty,  poorly  ventilated 
stable  ?     Why  should  milk  be  aerated  ? 

6.  Scoring  dairy  farms.  —  The  score-card  given  herewith  is  the  one 
published  by  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Using  this  score-card  visit  several  dairy  farms  and  score 
the  dairies.  Those  that  score  above  80  per  cent  are  producing  high 
grade  milk,  those  from  70  to  80  per  cent  are  producing  reasonably  clean 
milk,  and  those  that  are  50  per  cent  or  below  are  producing  dirty  milk. 
On  your  inspection  trip  you  will  undoubtedly  find  dirty  dairies  as  well 
as  clean  ones. 


Dairying 
Score-card  for  Dairy  Farm 


389 


Score 

Methods 

Score 

Equipment 

Per- 

Al- 

Per- 

Al- 

fect 

lowed 

fect 

lowed 

cows 

cows 

Health 

6 

Clean 

8 

Apparently  in  good  health  1 

(Free  from  visible  dirt,  6.) 

If  tested  with  tuberculin 

within  a  year  and  no 

tuberculosis    is    found, 

or  if  tested  within  six 

Cleanliness  of  stables    .     . 

6 

months  and  all  reacting 

Floor 2 

animals  removed      .     .  5 

Walls 1 

(If  tested  within  a  year 

Ceiling  and  ledges       .     .  1 

and  reacting  animals  are 

Mangers  and  partitions  .  1 

found  and  removed,  3.) 

Windows 1 

Food  (clean  and  wholesome) 

1 

Stable  air  at  milking  time  . 

5 

Water  (clean  and  fresh) 

Freedom  from  dust     .     .  3 
Freedom  fiom  odors  .     .  2 

STABLES 

Cleanliness  of  bedding   .     . 

Barnyard 

Clean 1 

1 
2 

Location  of  stable      .     .     . 

2 

Well  drained      ....  1 

Well  drained      ....  1 

Free  from  contaminating 

Removal  of  manure  daily  to 

surroundings        ...   1 

50  feet  from  stable      .     . 

2 

Construction  of  stable    .     . 

4 

Tight,    sound    floor    and 
proper  gutter      ...  2 

MILK    ROOM    OR    MILK    HOUSE 

Smooth,  tight  walls  and 

Cleanliness  of  milk  room    . 

3 



ceiling 1 

Proper  stall,  tie,  and  man- 
ger          1 

Provision  for  light :     Four 

UTENSILS   AND    MILKING 

Care  and  cleanliness  of  uten- 

sq.  ft.  of  glass  per  cow 
(Three  sq.  ft.,  3  •   2  sq. 

4 



Thoroughly  washed    ...  2 



ft., 2;  1  sq.ft.,  1.    Deduct 

Sterilized  in  steam  for  15 

for  uneven  distribution.) 

minutes 3 

Bedding        

1 

(Placed   over  steam 

Ventilation        

7 

jet,      or      scalded      with 
boiling  water,  2.) 

controllable  flue  system  3 

Protected  from  contami- 

(Windows hinged  at 
bottom,    1.5;       sliding 

nation  3 

Cleanliness  of  milking    .     . 

9 

Clean,  dry  hands   ...  3 

openings,  0.5.) 

Udders  washed  and  wiped  6 

Cubic  feet  of  space  per 

(Udders   cleaned   with 

'       cow,  500  ft 3 

moist  cloth,  4  ;     cleaned 

(Less  than  500  ft.,  2; 

with  dry  cloth  or  brush 

less    than    400    ft.,    1; 

at  least   15  minutes  be- 

less than  300  ft.,  0.) 

fore  milking,  1.) 

Provision  for  controlling 

temperature  .     .     ,     .  1 

HANDLING   THE    MILK 

Cleanliness  of  attendants  in 

milk  room 

2 

Construction    and    condition 

Milk  removed  immediately 

of  utensils 

1 

from  stable  without  pour- 

Water for  cleaning     .     .     . 

1 

ing  from  pail       .... 

2 

(Clean,  convenient,  and 

Cooled    immediately    after 

abundant.) 

milking  each  cow  .     .     . 

2 

Small-top  milking  pail    .     . 

5 

Cooled  below  50°  F.  .     .     . 

5 

Milk  cooler 

1 

(51°  to  55°,  4 ;  56°  to  60°,  2.) 

Clean  milking  suits    .     •     . 

1 

Stored  below  50°  F.        .     . 

3 

390 


Effective  Farming 


Score-card  for  Dairy  Farm  (Continued) 


.  Score 

Methods 

Score 

Equipment 

Per- 
fect 

Al- 
lowed 

Per- 
fect 

Al- 
lowed 

MILK   ROOM   OR   MILK   HOUSE 

Location  :     Free  from  con- 
taminating  surroundings 

Construction  of  milk  room 
Floor,  walls,  and  ceiling  .   1 
Light,  ventilation,  screens  1 

Separate  rooms  for  washing 
utensils      and      handling 
milk           

Facilities  for  steam    .     .     . 
(Hot  water,  0.5.) 

1 
2 

1 
1 

HANDLING   THE   MILK — CoTlt. 

(51°  to  55°,  2;   56°  to  60°,  1.) 
Transportation  below  50°  F. 
(51°  to  55°,  1.5  ;  56°  to  60°,  1.) 
(If     delivered     twice     a 
day,  allow  perfect  score  for 
storage      and      transporta- 
tion.) 

Total 

40 

Total 

60 

Equipment +  Methods = Final  Score. 

Note  1.  —  If  any  exceptionally  filthy  condition  is  found,  particularly  dirty  utensils, 
the  total  score  may  be  further  limited. 

Note  2.  —  If  the  water  is  exposed  to  dangerous  contamination,  or  there  is  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  a  dangerous  disease  in  animals  or  attendants,  the  score  shall  be  0. 


REFERENCES 

Eekles,  C.  H.,  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production.     The  Maemillan  Co. 
Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Warren  G.  F.,  Dairy  Farming.     The  Maemillan  Co. 
Wing,  H.  H.,  Milk  and  its  Products.     The  Maemillan  Co. 
Stocking,  W.  A.,  Manual  of  Milk  Products.     The  Maemillan  Co. 
MeKay,   G.   L.,  and   Larson,  Christian,   Principles  and   Practices  of 

Butter-Making.     Wiley  and  Sons. 
Michels,  John,  Dairy  Farming.     Published  by  the  author.     Clemson 

College,  S.C. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  602,  Production  of  Clean  Milk. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  490,  Bacteria  in  Milk. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  413,  Care  of  Milk  and  its  Use  in  the  Home. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  227,  Clean  Milk.  "    '  ' 

Farmers'   Bulletin  748,    A   Simple  Steam   Sterilizer  for   Farm   Dairy 

Utensils. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  541,  Farm  Butter  Making. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  689,  Plan  for  a  Small  Dairy  House. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SHEEP 

Classes  of  sheep. 
Middle-wool  breeds. 

Southdown,  Shropshire,  Hampshire,  Oxford,  Dorset,  Cheviot. 
Long- wool  breeds. 

Leicester,  Cotswold,  Lincoln. 
Fine-wool  breeds. 

American  Merino,  Rambouillet. 
Feeds  for  sheep. 
Importance  of  shepherd  dogs. 
Sheep-killing  dogs. 
Catching,  holding,  and  leading  sheep. 

When  rightly  managed  sheep  give  good  returns  on  the  in- 
vestment, they  furnish  a  valuable  food  product,  and  wool 
that  can  be  manufactured  into  the  warmest  of  cloth.  With 
all  these  good  qualities,  however,  not  many  sheep,  compared 
with  the  other  classes  of  live-stock,  are  found  on  American 
farms.  Sheep  are  abundant  in  the  western  country,  but  on 
the  farms  of  the  Central  States,  the  East,  and  the  South  many 
more  might  be  raised,  although  the  profit-and-loss  elements 
of  the  industry  must  determine  the  extent  to  which  it  can  be 
cariHe4.  The  cur-dog  nuisance  is  partly  responsible  for  lack 
of  sheep,  but  another  reason  is  that  farmers  as  a  whole  know 
little  about  sheep  raising.  Many  of  them  think  the  manage- 
ment of  a  flock  a  difficult  task,  but  experience  shows  that  this 
is  not  true.  Sheep  are  really  not  more  difficult  to  manage 
than  other  classes  of  live-stock.  However,  merely  because 
sheep  thrive  in  a  given  region  does  not  prove  that  they 
should  be  raised  there;  other  kinds  of  farming  may  be  more 
profitable. 

391 


392 


Effective  Farming 


197.  Classes  of  sheep.  —  Of  the  thirty  breeds  of  improved 
sheep,  eleven  are  fairly  well  established  in  the  United  States. 
These  may  be  grouped  into  three  classes  known  as  middle-wool, 
long-wool,  and  fine-wool  classes.  The  points  of  a  sheep  from 
the  side,  front,  and  rear  views  are  shown  in  Figs.  167  and  168. 


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iL/-^, 


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h^. 


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S^.SffnU 


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wh 


Fig.  167.  —  Points  of  the  sheep,  side  view.  1,  muzzle;  2,  mouth;  3,  nostril; 
4,  lips;  6,  nose;  8,  eye;  9,  ear;  10,  neck;  11,  neck  vien,  or  shoulder; 
12,  top  of  shoulder ;  iS,  shoulder ;  14,  arm ;  15,  shanks ;  16,  brisket,  or 
breast;  17,  top  line  ;  18,  crops  ;  19,  ribs  ;  21,  fore  flank;  22,  back  ;  23,  loin; 
24,  hind  flank ;  25,  underline  ;  26,  hip  ;  27,  rump  ;  30,  thigh,  or  leg  of  mutton. 

198.  Middle-wool  breeds.  —  The  breeds  of  the  middle-wool 
class  are  Southdown,  Shropshire,  flampshire,  Oxford,  Dorset, 
and  Cheviot.  The  first  four  are  known  as  the  down  breeds, 
a  name  applied  by  reason  of  the  hilly,  or  as  it  is  termed,  downs 
country  of  England  where  they  originated.  The  down  breeds 
and  the  other  two  of  this  class  are  bred  primarily  for  mutton 
and  secondarily  for  wool-production.  The  wool,  although  it 
is  of  medium  length,  brings  considerable  return  to  the  owners 
of  the  flocks  and  is  an  important  item. 

Southdown.  —  The  oldest  of  the  middle-wool  breeds  is  the 
Southdown.  The  animals  are  very  uniform  in  appearance,  as 
may  be  seen  in  Fig.  169.     They  are  extremely  blocky,  low-set, 


Sheep 


393 


compact  with  good  width  of  back,  thickness  of  loin,  and  plump- 
ness of  thighs.  In  mutton  form  they  excel  all  the  other  breeds. 
The  head  is  short  and  broad,  wide  between  the  eyes,  the  ears 
are  short,  small,  and  pointed  and  are  covered  on  the  outside 
with  tufts  of  wool.  The  face  below  the  eyes  is  covered  with 
brownish-gray  hair,  and  the  cheeks  and  forehead  with  wool. 
The  legs,  like  the  face,  are  covered  with  hair.  The  animals 
are  the  smallest  of  the  mutton  breeds,  rams  weighing  about 
one  hundred  seventy-five  pounds  and  ewes  about  one  hundred 


Fig.  168.  —  Points  of  the  sheep,  front  and  rear  views.  6,  face ;  7,  forehead ; 
16,  brisket,  or  breast;  20,  girth,  or  heart  girth;  28,  pin  bones;  29,  dock,  or 
tail;  31,  twist. 


thirty-five  pounds.     As  a  breed  they  are  active  and  adapted 
to  hilly  pastures.     The  fleece  is  very  dense  and  short. 

Shropshire.  —  The  most  widely  known  breed  of  sheep  in 
America  is  the  Shropshire  (Fig.  170).  The  animals  are  low- 
set,  broad,  deep,  and  well  fleshed,  but  they  do  not  have  as 
good  mutton  form  as  the  Southdowns.  The  head  is  wooled 
over,  except  the  nose,  which  is  covered  with  brown  hair.  The 
ears  are  slightly  pointed  and  are  covered  on  the  outside  with 
tufts  of  fine  wool.  The  legs,  where  not  wooled,  are  covered 
with  hair  the  same  color  as  that  on  the  nose.     In  size  the 


394 


Effective  Farming 


Sheep 


395 


Fig.  170.  —  Shropshire  ram. 


animals  are  intermediate  between  the  Southdown  and  the  Ox- 
ford. The  rams  usually  weigh  about  two  hundred  twenty-five 
pounds  and  the  ewes 
from  one  hundred  fifty 
to  one  hundred  sixty 
pounds.  In  weight  and 
length  of  fleece  the 
Shropshire  ranks  among 
the  best  of  the  middle- 
wool  breeds  and  the 
wool  is  evenly  distrib- 
uted over  the  body, 
often  extending  down 
to  the  hoofs. 

Hampshire.  —  The 
breed  noted  especially 
for  the  rapid  and  early  growth  of  the  lambs  is  the  Hampshire 
(Fig.  171).  The  animals  are  of  the  general  mutton  form,  but 
are  tall,  big-boned,  rugged,  and  inclined  to  be  somewhat  coarse  in 

appearance.  The  head 
is  large,  is  wooled  only 
on  the  forehead  and 
cheeks;  the  remaining 
parts  are  covered  with 
black  hair.  The  nose 
is  Roman,  which  is  a 
distinguishing  feature. 
The  ears  are  large,  car- 
ried straight  out  from 
the  head,  and  covered 
with  black  hair  the 
same  as  on  the  face. 
The  animals  are  large ;  rams  weigh  about  two  hundred  fifty 
pounds  and  ewes  from  one  hundred  eighty-five  to  one  hundred 
ninety-five  pounds.     The  fleece  is  not  so  good  as  in  most  of  the 


Fig.  171.  —  Hampshire  ewe. 


396 


Effective  Farming 


middle-wool  breeds ;  it  is  usually  short,  rather  thin,  and  not 
well  distributed  over  the  body. 

Oxford.  —  Formed  by  crossing  Hampshires  and  Cotswolds, 
a  long-wool  sheep,  the  Oxford  has  become  one  of  the  important 
breeds.  The  animals  are  the  largest  of  the  middle-wool  breeds, 
rams  weighing  from  two  hundred  fifty  to  three  hundred  fifty 
pounds  and  ewes  from  one  hundred  eighty  to  two  hundred 
seventy-five  pounds.  These  sheep  are  especially  well  de- 
veloped in  back,  loin,  and  hindquarters.  In  appearance  of 
head  they  somewhat  resemble  the  Shropshire,  although  the 
head  is  longer  and  is  wooled  only  down  to  the  eyes.  The 
remainder  of  the  face  is  covered  with  light-brown  hair.  The 
ears  are  longer  than  those  of  the  Shropshire  and  are  covered 
with  hair.     The  legs  are  covered  with  hair,  also.     The  fleece  is 

long  and  coarse,  aver- 
aging about  10  per  cent 
heavier  than  that  of  the 
Shropshire.  It  is  usu- 
ally somewhat  open, 
but  is  close  enough  for 
the  protection  of  the 
animals. 

Dorset.  —  A  distin- 
guishing feature  of  the 
Dorset  breed  (Fig.  172) 
is  that  both  ewes  and 
rams  have  horns.  The 
form  of  the  animal  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Shropshire,  but  is  somewhat  less  sym- 
metrical. The  ears,  legs,  and  face,  except  a  foretop  of  wool, 
are  covered  with  fine  white  hair.  The  skin  of  the  nose  is 
usually  pink.  In  size  the  animals  are  medium,  the  rams 
weighing  about  two  hundred  pounds  and  the  ewes  one  hun- 
dred sixty  pounds.  The  fleece  is  medium  in  coarseness  and 
length;  it  often  lacks  density  and  is  not  evenly  distributed, 


Fig.  172.  —  Dorset  ewes. 


Sheep 


397 


the  under  side  of  the  body  frequently  being  short- wooled,  or 
bare.  Strong  features  of  the  Dorset  are  the  breeding  habit, 
the  proUficacy,  and  the  milking  quality  of  the  ewes.  The 
ewes  can  be  bred  to  lamb  in  the  fall;  this  makes  the  breed 
popular  with  farmers  who  desire  to  grow  "  hot-house  lambs," 
that  is,  lambs  that  can  be  marketed  from  Thanksgiving  to 
Easter.  The  ewes  can  be  bred  to  lamb  twice  a  year,  but  this 
practice  is  not  advised.  Twin  lambs  are  rather  common, 
more  so  than  with  other  breeds.  The  milking  qualities  of  the 
ewes  is  above  the  average  and,  largely  on  this  account,  the  lambs 
grow  rapidly  and  come  to  marketable  age  early. 

Cheviot.  —  Animals  of  the  Cheviot  breed  (Fig.  173)  have 
been  raised  for  centuries  in  the  Cheviot  Hills  near  the  border 
of  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land. They  are  vigor- 
ous, alert,  and  hardy 
and  can  often  be  raised 
on  high  rugged  lands 
that  are  unsuited  to  the 
other  breeds.  The  form 
approaches  the  mutton 
type,  but  it  does  not 
equal  that  of  the  down 
breeds.  The  head,  face, 
and  ears  are  characteris- 
tic in  appearance,  the 
head  being  broad  between  the  eyes,  the  ears  erect,  and  the 
face  and  ears  covered  with  fine,  white  hair.  The  fleece  ends 
just  back  of  the  ears  and  about  the  throat  in  a  ruff.  The 
legs  are  clean  of  wool  and  are  covered  with  hair  like  that  on 
the  face  and  ears.  In  size  the  animals  are  medium,  rams 
weighing  about  two  hundred  pounds  and  ewes  about  one  hun- 
dred fifty  pounds.  The  wool  is  of  excellent  quality,  rather 
light  in  weight,  and  is  white  in  contrast  to  the  gray  tinge  of 
the  down  breeds. 


Fig.  173.  —  Cheviot  ram. 


398 


Effective  Farming 


199.  Long-wool  breeds.  —  The  breeds  of  long-wool  sheep 
are  Leicester,  Cotswold,  and  Lincoln.  The  animals  are  raised 
chiefly  for  mutton.  They  are  the  largest  sheep  grown  and 
are  large-framed  and  square-bodied  with  broad  backs.  The 
fleeces  are  more  open,  coarser,  and  longer  than  those  of  the 
other  classes.  On  account  of  their  size  they  are  best  suited 
for  level  lands  where  feed  can  be  obtained  without  much  travel. 
They  stand  wet  weather  well,  the  long  wool  shedding  water 
better  than  that  of  the  middle-wool  breeds.     The  lambs  do 

not  mature  so  rapidly 
nor  fatten  so  young  as 
those  of  middle-wool 
animals. 

Leicester.  —  The  first 
breed  of  sheep  to  be  im- 
proved by  careful  selec- 
tion and  breeding  was 
the  Leicester  (Fig.  174). 
Robert  Bakewell,  one  of 
the  early  and  foremost 
breeders  of  live-stock  in 
England,  used  these  ani- 
Leicesters  have  a  characteristic  appearance 
the  head  is  bare  of  wool  from  the  ears  forward 


Fig.   174.  —  Leicester  ewe 


mals  in  his  work 
of  head  and  face 
and  the  face  is  lean  and  tapers  toward  the  muzzle  with  a  slightly 
Roman  nose  and  is  covered  with  short,  white  hair  with  an  occa- 
sional black  spot.  The  ears  and  legs,  like  the  face,  are  covered 
with  hair.  The  form  is  square,  the  back  wide  and  well  covered 
with  flesh,  and  the  rump  prominent.  The  animals  are  the 
smallest  of  the  long- wool  breeds,  the  rams  weighing  from  two 
hundred  twenty-five  to  two  hundred  fifty  pounds  and  the  ewes 
from  one  hundred  seventy-five  to  two  hundred  pounds.  The 
fleece  is  long,  white,  and  fine,  and  hangs  in  locks  that  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  other  long-wool  breeds. 

Cotswold.  —  The  native  home  of  these  sheep  (Fig.  175)  is 


Sheep 


399 


/r^^' 


the  Cotswold  Hills  of  England.  The  animals  are  somewhat 
upstanding,  but  are  of  good  mutton  form  and  possess  strong, 
well  fleshed  backs  and  loins.  The  face  and  ears  are  covered 
with  white  or  grayish  hairs  and  the  head  carries  a  heavy  fore- 
lock of  wool  that  falls  over  the  face  and  eyes,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  175.  The  animals  are  among  the  largest  of  sheep,  ranging 
from  two  hundred  to  two 
hundred  fifty  pounds. 
The  wool  hangs  in  long 
wavy  ringlets  all  over 
the  body,  except  the 
face,  and  yields  a  large 
quantity  of  fleece. 

Lincoln .  —  The  native 
home  of  the  Lincoln  breed 
(Fig.  176)  is  England, 
where  conditions  are  well 
adapted  for  the  develop- 
ment of  large  sheep.  The 
animals  are  shorter  and 
more  compactly  built 
than  the  Cotswold  and 
show  a  massive,  square 
mutton  frame.  The  face, 
ears,  and  legs  below  the 
knees  and  hocks  are  cov- 
ered with  white  hair.  On 
the  head  is  a  tuft  of  wool.  The  animals  average  in  weight 
from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  fifty  pounds  and  they  shear 
a  very  heavy  fleece. 

200.  Fine-wool  breeds.  —  The  breeds  of  the  fine-wool  class 
are  American  Merino  and  Rambouillet.  All  these  fine-wool 
sheep  lire  descendants  from  Spanish  stock.  The  animals  have 
been  bred  principally  for  the  production  of  wool,  although  in 
the  C  type  of  Merino  (see  the  next  paragraph)  and  the  Ram- 


FiG.  175.  —  Cotswold  ram. 


400 


Effective  Farming 


Lincoln  ewe. 


bouillet  the  breeders 
have  improved  the  mut- 
ton quaUties  and  have 
kept  the  fine-wool  char- 
acteristic. 

American  Merino. — 
The  American  Merinos 
are  the  smallest  of  all 
breeds,  the  rams  rang- 
ing from  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  seventy- 
five  pounds  and  the 
ewes  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  pounds.  The 
head  is  small  and  covered  with  wool,  except  the  tip  of  the  nose. 
The  males  have  heavy,  incurving,  spiral  horns;  the  females 
are  hornless.  The  fleece  is  from  two  to  two  and  one-half 
inches  in  length  and  is  very  dense  and  fine.  The  whole  body 
is  covered  with  wool  and 
the  area  of  the  wooled 
surface  is  increased  by 
the  presence  of  wrinkles 
and  folds.  The  Merinos 
are  grouped  into  three 
classes,  A,  B,  and  C, 
according  to  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  the 
wrinkles  and  folds. 
Animals  of  class  A  (Fig. 
177)  have  heavy  wrin- 
kles and  folds ;  those  of 
class  B  have  few  wrinkles  about  the  neck  and  brisket  and 
in  some  cases  on  the  thighs;  those  of  class  C  are  still  less 
wrinkled,  often  having  only  a  sUght  suggestion  of  wrinkles 
about  the  neck.     They  are  often  known  as  Delaine  Merinos 


Fig.  177.  —  Type  A,  Merino  ram. 


Sheep 


401 


and  are  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  other  two  classes, 
and  have  slightly  longer  and  coarser  wool  and  more  of  the 
mutton  form.  Some  authorities  make  the  Delaine  Merinos 
a  separate  breed. 

Rambouillet.  —  The  animals  of  the  Rambouillet  breed  (Fig. 
178)  are  larger  than  those  of  the  other  fine- wool  sheep,  the 
rams  weighing  from  one  hundred  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
eighty  pounds  and  the  ewes  from  one  hundred  forty  to  one 
hundred  eighty  pounds. 
Although  the  sheep  are 
rather  upstanding,  the 
form  approaches  that 
of  the  mutton  type  and 
the  animals  produce  a 
good  quality  of  mutton 
as  well  as  fine  wool. 
The  head  is  larger  than 
in  the  Merinos  and  is 
wooled  well  down  on 
the  nose.  The  wool  is 
about  three  inches  long 
and  the  fleece  com- 
pletely covers  the  body. 

201.  Feeds  for  sheep. 
—  Sheep  are  capable  of 

digesting  large  quantities  of  roughage,  but  they  should  have 
concentrates  in  addition.  Excellent  roughages  for  sheep  are 
the  leguminous  hays  from  alfalfa,  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  or 
cowpeas.  Corn  stover,  straws,  and  hays  from  some  of  the 
grasses  are  often  fed  to  sheep,  but  they  are  inferior  to  the 
leguminous  hays.  Timothy  or  millet  hays  should  not  be  fed  to 
sheep.     The  former  causes  constipation  and  the  latter,  scours. 

Pasturage  is  the  important  feed  for  sheep.     They  are  natu- 
rally grazing  animals  and,  like  all  animals  that  chew  their  cud, 
require    abundant    succulent    feed.     Permanent    pastures    of 
2d 


Fig.  178.  —  Rambouillet  ewe. 


402  Effective  Farming 

blue-grass,  white  clover,  Bermuda-grass,  meadow-fescue,  or 
red  clover,  usually  in  mixtures,  make  good  sheep  pasture.  A 
number  of  annual  crops  also  are  used  for  sheep  pasture.  Among 
these  are  rape,  oats  and  peas,  vetches,  cowpeas,  soybeans, 
barley,  kale,  and  wheat. 

Roots  are  often  fed  to  sheep  in  winter  to  supply  succulent 
feed.  They  should  be  pulped  or  cut  into  small  pieces.  Turnips 
and  rutabagas  are  best ;  sugar-beets  and  mangels  are  not 
usually  satisfactory.  Silage  is  a  useful  succulent  for  sheep. 
If  it  is  of  good  quality,  it  can  be  fed  with  satisfactory  results, 
but  if  sour,  moldy,  or  frozen,  it  should  never  be  utilized. 
Cabbage  is  used  for  sheep,  especially  show  sheep.  The  animals 
relish  it,  but  for  commercial  feeding  cabbage  is  too  expensive 
and,  moreover,  does  not  kee{i  well  in  storage.  Pumpkins,  if 
cut  into  small  pieces,  can  be  fed  to  sheep  very  satisfactorily. 
They  are  especially  useful  in  adding  variety  to  the  ration. 

Among  the  concentrates  for  sheep  are  corn,  barley,  oats, 
peas,  whole  cottonseed,  cottonseed  meal  and  cottonseed  hulls 
mixed,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  and  bran. 

202.  Importance  of  shepherd  dogs.  —  A  well  trained  shep- 
herd dog  is  a  valuable  asset  to  any  farmer  who  raises  sheep. 
A  dog  can  be  taught  to  herd  the  flock  and  will  watch  them 
tirelessly  and  warn  the  owner  of  any  prowler  that  may  be  near. 
Scotch  collies  are  the  sheep  dogs  used  in  America  and  for  this 
purpose  are  invaluable. 

203.  Sheep-killing  dogs.  —  In  contrast  to  the  well  trained 
dog  is  the  cur  sheep-killing  dog.  Dogs  of  this  class  have  pre- 
vented many  farmers  from  raising  sheep  and  have  caused  others 
to  sell  their  flocks.  Thousands  of  sheep  have  been  killed  or 
injured  by  such  dogs,  and  whenever  a  flock  becomes  ravaged, 
the  sheep  are  restless  and  easily  excited  and  not  likely  to  make 
normal  gains  in  weight  for  two  weeks  afterwards ;  this  loss 
must  be  added  to  that  of  the  sheep  killed  or  injured.  In  some 
cases  flocks  have  become  so  restless  that  they  had  to  be  sold. 

Among  the  remedies  for  the  cur-dog  nuisance  are  stringent 


Sheep  403 

dog-laws,  dog-proof  wire  fences,  sheep-bells,  and  the  keeping 
of  more  sheep.  Stringent  dog-laws  rigidly  enforced  will  aid 
much  toward  the  solution  of  the  problem.  In  England,  where 
such  laws  are  in  force,  skeep-killing  by  dogs  is  much  less  common 
than  in  America.  A  yard  inclosed  by  a  dog-proof  fence  into 
which  the  sheep  are  driven  at  night  is  an  effective  aid  in  pro- 
tecting the  animals.  Sheep-bells  serve  as  a  warning  where 
the  flock  is  disturbed  and  thus  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  several 
in  each  flock.  The  raising  of  more  sheep  in  any  community, 
especially  in  one  in  which  not  many  farmers  have  sheep,  will 
aid  in  solving  the  cur-dog  problem,  because  the  farmers  will 
then  be  more  active  in  promoting  dog  laws. 

204.  Catching,  holding,  and  leading  of  sheep.  —  Unless  one 
is  accustomed  to  handling  sheep,  one  is  likely  to  have  difficulty 
in  catching,  holding,  and  leading  them.  A  practical  method 
of  handling  sheep  when  scoring,  judging,  or  otherwise  examining 
them  is  as  follows  :  Step  up  quietly  behind  the  sheep  and  grasp 
its  hind  leg  just  above  the  hock  with  the  right  hand.  Sheep 
do  not  struggle  much  when  caught  by  the  leg  in  this  manner. 
Never  jump  on  the  back  of  a  sheep  and  try  to  hold  it  by  the 
wool,  as  one  is  almost  sure  to  frighten  the  animal  and  to  loosen 
or  pull  out  wool.  Sheep  to  be  scored  or  judged  should  be  held 
by  the  head.  To  change  position,  when  holding  the  sheep  by  the 
hind  leg,  step  back  and  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  animal,  reach 
forward  with  the  left  hand  and  pass  it  under  the  neck  from  the 
left  side,  release  hold  of  the  hind  leg,  step  forward,  and  place 
the  right  hand  on  the  top  of  the  neck,  slide  the  left  hand  under 
the  jaw,  then  pass  the  right  hand  over  the  forehead.  With  the 
hands  in  this  position  one  can  usually  hold  the  sheep  quietly, 
even  if  it  is  a  rather  stubborn  animal,  and  if  it  is  a  quiet  one, 
it  can  be  held  with  one  hand  placed  under  the  jaw. 

A  sheep  is  a  stubborn  animal  to  lead.  To  make  it  go  for- 
ward, assume  the  position  described  above,  leave  one  hand 
under  the  jaw,  step  back  and  grasp  the  root  of  the  tail  or  the 
dock  with  the  other  hand  and  squeeze  it.    The  sheep  will 


404 


Effective  Farming 


generally  go  forward  when  this  is  done,  but  if  dragged  by  the 
head  it  is  almost  sure  to  pull  back. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  three  classes  of  sheep  and  give  the  general  character- 
istics of  each. 

2.  Which  breed  of  sheep  shows  the  best  mutton  form  ? 

3.  Describe  and  contrast  Shropshire  and  Oxford  sheep. 

4.  Which  breed  is  used  for  the  production  of  hot-house  lambs  ? 

5.  Point  out  the  general  differences  between  the  Leicester  and 
Cotswold  breeds. 

6.  Which  of  the  breeds  of  the  fine-wool  class  has  been  most  de- 
veloped as  a  dual-purpose  breed  ? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  good  roughages  for  sheep. 

8.  Why  is  silage  a  good  feed  for  sheep  ? 

9.  Contrast  the  heads  of  the  three  long-wool  breeds. 

10.   What  remedies  can  you  suggest  for  sheep-killing  dogs? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Scoring  and  judging  sheep.  —  Making  use  of  the  score-card 
given  herewith,  score  and  judge  sheep  as  directed  for  this  work  with  the 
other  classes  of  live-stock. 

Score-card  for  Fat  Mutton  Sheep  ^ 


Scale  of  Points 


1.  Age 

General  appearance  —  38  per  cent : 

2.  Weight,  score  according  to  age 

3.  Form,  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low-set,  stylish 

4.  Quality,  clean  bone;    silky  hair;    fine  pink 

skin ;   light  in  offal,  yielding  high  percent- 
age of  meat 

Condition,  deep  even  covering  of  firm  flesh 
especially  in  regions  of  valuable  cuts 
Points  indicating  ripeness  are,  thick  dock 
back  thickly  covered  with  flesh,  thick  neck 
full  purse,  full  flank,  plump  breast    .     . 


5. 


Stand- 
ard 


8 
10 


10 


10 


Points 
Deficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


1  From  Purdue  University  Circular  29. 


Sheep 


405 


Score-card  for  Fat  Mutton  Sheep  {Continued) 


Scale  of  Points 


Stand- 


Points 
Deficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Head  and  neck  —  7  per  cent : 

6.  Muzzle,  fine ;  mouth  large ;  lips  thin ;  nostrils 

large  and  open       

7.  Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

8.  Face,  short ;  features  clean-cut 

9.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

10.  Ears,  fine,  alert 

11.  Neck,  thick,  short,  free  from  folds  .... 
Forequarters  —  7  per  cent : 

12.  Shoulders,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top, 

snug 

13.  Brisket,  neat,  proportionate ;   breast  wide     . 

14.  Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong ;  fore- 

arm full ;   shank  smooth,  fine  ..... 
Body  —  20  per  cent : 

15.  Chest,  wide,  deep,  full 

16.  Ribs,  well  sprung,  long,  close 

17.  Back,  broad,  straight,  long,  thickly  fieshed 

18.  Loin,  thick,  broad,  long 

Hindquarters  —  16  per  cent : 

19.  Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth      ..... 

20.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide  to  tail-head     .     .     . 

21.  Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide 

22.  Twist,  plump,  deep 

23.  Legs,   straight,    short,   strong;     shank  fine, 

smooth 

Wool  —  12  per  cent : 

24.  Quantity,  long,  dense,  even 

25.  Quality,  fine,  pure ;  crimp  close,  regular,  even 

26.  Condition,  bright,  sound,  clean,  soft,  light    . 

Total 


100 


2.  The  cuts  of  mutton  and  lamb,  —  The  cuts  of  mutton  and  lamb 
should  be  studied  as  the  beef  cuts  were  in  a  previous  exercise.  Refer 
to  Illinois  Station  Bulletin  147. 

3.  Handling  of  sheep.  —  Practice  catching,  holding,  and  leading 
sheep  as  described  in  paragraph  204. 


406  Effective  Farming 


REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  592- 

633.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Craig,  John,  Sheep  Farming  in  America.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Wing,  J.  E.,  Sheep  Farming  in  America.     Sanders  Publishing  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  576,  Breeds  of  Sheep  for  the  Farm. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  49,  Sheep  Feeding. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  652,  The  Sheep-killing  Dog. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  713,  Sheep  Scab. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  798,  The  Sheep  Tick  and  Its  Eradication  by  Dipping. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  810,  Equipment  for  Farm  Sheep  Raising. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  840,  Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  20,  The  Management  of  Sheep  on 

the  Farm. 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  129,  Market  Classes 

and  Grades  of  Sheep. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SWINE 

Lard-type  swine. 

Berkshire,  Poland-China,  Chester  White,  Duroc-Jersey,  Hamp- 
shire. 
Bacon-type  swine. 

Large  Yorkshire,  Tamworth. 
Regions  for  hog-raising. 
Feeds  for  swine. 
Sanitation  in  the  hog  lot. 
Hog  cholera. 
Mineral  matter  and  tonic  for  hogs. 

Many  farmers  in  the  Central  States  have  become  prosper- 
ous raising  swine.  One  farmer  in  Illinois  sells  $10,000  worth 
of  pure-bred  swine  each  year  in  addition  to  other  products 
from  his  farm.  This  is  in  the  corn-belt  region;  we  have  al- 
ready found  that  maize  and  cattle  and  hogs  go  well  together. 
In  the  South  and  East,  also,  swine  production  on  farms  is  ex- 
tensive. Pork,  bacon,  lard,  and  other  swine  products,  are 
staple  articles  of  household  use.  A  great  impetus  has  been 
given  to  swine  production  in  recent  years  by  the  Boys'  Pig 
Clubs,  which,  like  the  Boys'  Corn  Clubs,  the  Girls'  Tomato 
Clubs,  and  the  Girls'  Canning  Clubs,  have  been  fostered  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  For  information 
about  Pig  Clubs,  consult  Farmers'  Bulletin  566  given  as  a 
reference  at  the  end  of  this  chapter ;  also  consult  your  county 
agent. 

205.  Lard-type  swine.  —  Two  types  of  swine  are  grown 
by  American  farmers.  These  are  known  as  the  lard-  or  fat- 
hog  type,  and  the  bacon-hog  type.  Lard-type  swine  produce 
large  quantities  of  fat.     They  are  low-set,  wide,  deep,  and  of 

407 


408 


Effective  Farming 


medium  length,  have  well  developed  hams  and  shoulders,  and 
give  a  fair  quantity  of  bacon.  They  furnish  the  market  with 
cheap  side  meat,  hams,  and  shoulders.  The  animals  are  best 
suited  to  conditions  where  corn  is  cheaply  and  abundantly 


Fig.  179.  —  Points  of  the  hog,  three-quarters  front  view.  2,  face ;  3,  eye ; 
4,  ears ;  5,  jowl ;  7,  shoulder  vein,  or  neck  vein ;  8,  shoulder ;  9,  arm ; 
11,  leg;  14,  topline ;  15,  crops;  16,  back;  17,  loin;  18,  side;  19,  ribs; 
20,  belly;  21,  fore  flank;  22,  underline,  or  bottom  line;  23,  hind  flank; 
24,  hip;  25,  rump;  26,  tail;  28,  thigh;  29,  buttock;  31,  hock. 

produced.  The  chief  breeds  are  Berkshire,  Poland-China, 
Chester  White,  Duroc-Jersey,  and  Hampshire.  Three  of  these 
originated  in  America  and  two  in  England.  The  external  parts 
of  swine  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  179  and  180. 


Fig.  180.—  Points  of  the  hog,  side  view.  1,  snout ;  5,  jowl ;  6,  neck  ;  8,  shoulder ; 
9,  arm;  10,  breast,  or  brisket;  12.  pastern;  13,  feet;  15,  crops:  16,  back; 
17,  loin;  18,  side;  19,  ribs;  20,  belly;  21,  fore  flank;  23,  hind  flank;  24,  hip  ; 
25,  rump ;  27,  ham,  or  gammon ;  29,  buttocks  ;  30,  twist,  or  crotch ;  31,  hock. 


Swine 


409 


Fig.  181.  —  Berkshire  sow. 


Berkshire.  —  One  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  swine  is  the  Berk- 
shire (Fig.  181).  This  is  an  EngUsh  breed  and  the  animals  are 
widely  distributed  in  America,  where  they  are  very  popular. 
They  are  blue-black  in  color  and  most  of  them  show  six 
white  points  —  one  on 
the  face,  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  and  the  four  feet. 
An  occasional  splash  of 
white  is  found  on  the 
forelegs.  A  solid  black 
color  or  white  spots  on 
the  body  are  objected 
to  by  breeders.  In  size 
the  animals  are  a  trifle 
larger  than  the  other 
lard  breeds.     A  mature 

boar,  when  fat,  should  weigh  five  hundred  pounds  and  a  mature 
sow,  four  hundred  pounds.  The  conformation  is  that  of  the  lai'd- 
type  hog.  The  face  is  short  and  dished  and  the  ears  are  short, 
pointed,  and  usually  erect.     The  Berkshire  has  been  largely  used 

for  crossing  with  scrub 
stock,  as  the  animals  work 
marked  improvement  in 
the  offspring  with  what- 
ever stock  they  are 
crossed.  In  the  corn-belt 
states  and  in  the  South, 
Berkshires  are  very  pop- 
ular. 

Poland-China.  —  This 
breed  (Fig.  182)  origi- 
nated in  the  Miami  Valley  in  Ohio  as  a  result  of  crossing  native 
hogs  with  Berkshires.  Careful  selection  of  the  offspring  followed 
with  the  result  that  to-day  the  Poland-China  is  a  fixed  type.  The 
animals  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  more  especially 


Fig.  182.  —  Poland-China  sow. 


410 


Effective  Farming 


in  the  corn-belt.  The  color  in  the  best  specimens  is  jet  black, 
with  six  white  points  —  at  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  four  feet,  and 
on  the  nose  or  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  size  they  are 
nearly  as  large  as  the  Berkshires.  The  conformation  of  the 
animals,  Uke  that  of  the  Berkshires,  is  of  the  lard  type.  The 
head  is  short  and  the  face  shows  a  slight  dish.  A  distinguishing 
feature  is  the  ears.  As  described  by  the  National  Association 
of  Expert  Judges  of  swine,  they  should  be  "  attached  to  the 


Chester  White  swine. 


head  by  a  short,  firm  knuckle  .  .  .  standing  up  slightly  at  the 
base  to  within  two-thirds  of  the  tip,  where  a  gentle  break, 
or  drop,  should  occur.  ..." 

Chester  White.  —  As  the  name  indicates  the  Chester  White 
(Fig.  183)  is  a  white  breed.  There  are  three  different  strains, 
known  as  the  original  Chester  White,  Todds'  Improved  Chester 
White,  and  Ohio  Improved  Chester  White.  The  original 
Chester  Whites  are  natives  of  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania, 


Swine 


411 


and  are  the  result  of  crossing  native  white  swine  with  white 
hogs  from  Europe.  The  Todd  strain  was  developed  by  Todd 
brothers,  the  foundation  stock  being  a  white  and  black  boar 
from  England  mated  with  a  white  sow.  The  Ohio  Improved 
strain  was  started  by  breeding  and  selecting  the  original  Chester 
Whites  with  the  purpose  of  securing  animals  of  larger  size, 
and  superior  quality.  The  animals  of  the  different  strains  are 
now  found  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
They  are  white  in  color,  usually  with  blue  specks,  known  as 
freckles,  on  the  skin.  In  size  they  rank  with  the  Poland-Chinas 
and  in  conformation,  they  are  somewhat  longer,  but  usually 
show  less  width.  The 
face  is  long  and  straight, 
the  ears,  drooping  and 
falling  gradually  for- 
ward, not  standing  from 
the  head  as  in  the 
Poland-Chinas. 

Duroc- Jersey.  —  By 
crossing  the  Durocs  and 
the  Jersey  Reds,  swine 
found  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  the  Duroc- 
Jersey  breed  (Fig.  184) 
was  originated.  At  first  the  animals  had  several  undesirable 
qualities,  but  these  have  been  improved  by  careful  selection. 
The  breed  is  very  popular  in  the  corn-belt  states.  In  color 
the  animals  are  red,  a  cherry  red  being  preferred  to  lighter 
shades.  In  size  they  rank  with  Poland-Chinas  and  Chester 
Whites.  In  conformation  they  are  low-set,  broad  and  deep 
with  full,  smooth  hams  and  shoulders.  The  head  is  of  medium 
size,  the  face  shghtly  dished,  the  ears,  of  medium  size  and 
point  outward,  forward,  and  slightly  downward. 

Hampshire.  —  The  breed  known  as  the  Hampshire,  or  Thin 
Rind,  originated  in  England.     The  animals  have  been  classed  as 


Fig,  184.  —  Duroc- Jersey  sow. 


412 


Effective  Farming 


Fig.  185.  —  Hampshire  boar. 


both  lard  and  bacon  types,  but  now  at  the  live-stock  shows, 
they  are  usually  shown  in  the  fat-hog  classes.  In  color  they 
are  black  with  a  broad  white  stripe  around  the  body  and  on  the 

forelegs  (Fig.  185).  The 
weight  of  the  animals 
is  usually  a  little  less 
than  that  of  the  other 
lard-type  breeds.  In 
conformation  they  are 
intermediate  between 
lard  and  bacon  hogs. 
The  head  is  rather  long, 
the  face  straight,  and 
the  ears  erect  and  point- 
ing forward. 

206.  Bacon-type  swine.  —  This  type  produces  bacon  in 
relatively  large  quantities.  They  have  light  hams  and  shoul- 
ders, but  give  a  large  proportion  of  bacon  of  good  quality. 
They  are  incUned  to  be  thin,  narrow-bodied,  long,  deep,  and 
upstanding.  This  type  is  best  suited  to  conditions  where  peas, 
barley,  and  oats  are  pro- 
duced abundantly  and 
cheaply.  The  breeds 
of  bacon-type  swine  are 
Large  Yorkshire  and 
Tam worth.  Both  are 
native  to  England. 

Large  Yorkshire.- 
One  of  the  oldest  Eng- 
lish breeds  is  the  Large 
Yorkshire  (Fig.  186). 
The  color  is  white  with 
bluish  spots  on  the  skin.  In  size  the  animals  surpass  those  of 
all  other  breeds,  individuals  sometimes  weighing  one  thousand 
pounds.     In  conformation  the  Large  Yorkshire  is  typically  a 


Swine  413 

bacon-type  hog.  The  sides  are  long  and  deep,  the  shoulders, 
thin  and  tapering,  the  head  of  medium  length,  the  face,  dished, 
the  ears,  long  and  carried  erect. 

Tamworth.  —  One  of  the  oldest  English  breeds  in  existence 
is  the  Tamworth.  In  America  the  breed  is  found  principally 
in  the  Eastern  part  of  Canada,  with  scattered  herds  through- 
out the  United  States.  The  color  is  cherry  red,  and  in  size 
the  animals  rank  next  to  the  Yorkshires.  In  conformation 
they  are  of  the  true  bacon  type  with  long,  deep,  narrow  bodies 
set  on  long  legs.  The  snout  is  long  and  straight  with  no  dish 
in  the  face  and  the  ears  are  long,  pointed,  and  erect. 

207.  Regions  for  hog-raising.  —  The  corn-belt  states  have 
for  a  long  time  held  first  place  in  the  number  of  hogs  due 
largely  to  the  cheapness  and  abundance  of  the  corn  in  that 
region.  Corn  for  hogs  is  a  nutritious  and  palatable  feed  and 
gains  in  weight  are  easily  induced  by  its  use.  In  the  corn- 
belt  states  where  steers  are  fattened,  hogs  are  usually  allowed 
to  follow  the  steers,  —  that  is,  stay  in  the  same  inclosure  and 
pick  any  feed  dropped  by  them.  The  feeding  of  steers  is  more 
profitable  when  hogs  are  kept  and  the  latter  usually  give  more 
profit  than  if  fed  alone.  Nearly  all  farmers  give  the  hogs  corn 
in  addition  to  that  which  they  secure  from  the  feed-lot  and  this 
ration  is  fed  to  them  in  separate  yards.  Corn  should  not  be 
fed  as  the  exclusive  grain  of  hogs,  as  it  is  too  heating  and  fatten- 
ing. Feeders  balance  he  ration  by  including  such  stuffs  as 
shorts,  bran,  linseed  meal,  and  tankage. 

Hogs  are  raised  not  only  in  the  corn-belt,  but  in  all  sections 
where  barley,  wheat,  oats,  or  rye  and  such  leguminous  seeds 
as  peas  and  beans  can  be  produced  cheaply  and  abundantly. 
Dairy  regions  are  well  adapted  to  pork-raising,  as  the  dairy 
by-products  are  excellent  feeds  for  the  hogs. 

The  South  has  many  features  that  make  it  suitable  for 
pork-raising  and  the  industry  is  increasing  in  that  section.  In 
Farmers'  Bulletin  411,  Feeding  Hogs  in  the  South,  the  following 
statements    are   made: 


414  Effective  Farming 

1.  Hogs  can  be  raised  at  a  profit  in  the  South,  and  southern  farm- 
ers should  raise  mor6  of  them. 

2.  Hogs  can  not  be  raised  profitably  on  corn  alone. 

3.  While  pork  can  sometimes  be  made  at  a  profit  when  corn  is  sup- 
plemented with  nothing  but  a  concentrated  feed,  still  it  is  not  wise  to 
use  concentrated  supplements  alone. 

4.  Hogs  can  be  produced  cheaper  when  pastures  are  used  along 
with  the  grains  than  when  grains  are  used  alone.  By  means  of  pas- 
ture crops  pork  can  be  made  cheaper  in  the  South  than  it  is  possible 
to  make  it  in  the  corn  belt. 

5.  The  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of  pastures  are  : 

Pork  costs  only  one  third  to  one  half  as  much  when  pastures  are 
used  as  when  concentrated  feeds  alone  are  used. 

The  soils  are  improved  very  materially  as  a  result  of  growing  the 
legumes  for  the  hogs  and  feeding  extra  grains  to  the  animals. 

The  crops  are  harvested  (through  the  hogs)  without  danger  of  loss 
from  rains  and  without  expense. 

The  hogs  are  under  favorable  health  conditions;  therefore  losses 
from  disease  will  be  lessened. 

208.  Feeds  for  swine.  —  In  addition  to  the  concentrates 
which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraphs, 
swine  require  succulent  feed  as  a  part  of  their  ration.  Where 
white  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  abundantly, 
there  is  usually  some  unmarketable  produce  that  can  be  utilized 
as  hog  feed.  Mangels  and  pumpkins  make  good  succulent 
feeds  for  swine.  Whenever  possible  hogs  should  be  on  pasture. 
Alfalfa,  red  clover,  crimson  clover,  and  rape  make  suitable 
pastures  for  hogs.  In  the  South,  bur  clover  and  Bermuda-grass 
are  much  used  as  hog  pasture.  Skim-milk  and  buttermilk 
are  excellent  for  swine. 

209.  Sanitation  in  the  hog  lot.  —  The  hog  is  subject  to  four 
very  serious  troubles :  hog  cholera,  swine  plague,  tuberculosis, 
and  animal  parasites.  In  dealing  with  these,  preventive  meas- 
ures must  be  adopted.  The  animals  must  be  given  dry,  well 
ventilated  quarters  that  are  kept  clean.  Feed  troughs  and 
drinking  places  must  be  clean  and  the  water  pure.  At  least 
once  a  month  the  quarters  should  be  disinfected  by  spraying 


Swine  415 

with  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  crude  carbolic  acid  followed  by  a 
coat  of  whitewash. 

Hogs  often  suffer  from  Hce.  The  insects  are  most  numerous 
around  the  ears,  inside  the  legs,  and  in  the  folds  of  the  skin. 
In  light  cases  they  may  be  destroyed  by  washing  the  hogs  with 
a  broom  moistened  with  an  emulsion  of  kerosene  and  water, 
or  by  using  a  stock  dip.  In  severe  cases  the  whole  herd  should 
be  dipped.  If  the  herd  is  badly  infested,  the  bedding  should 
be  burned  and  the  loose  boards  and  partitions  of  the  quarters 
removed  and  the  whole  place  disinfected  with  crude  carbolic 
acid  followed  by  a  coat  of  whitewash. 

The  mud-wallow  too  often  seen  in  hog  yards  should  be  done 
away  with  and  a  concrete  wallowing  place  provided.  This 
should  be  about  fourteen  inches  deep  and  be  built  under  cover 
of  a  shed.  The  ground  surrounding  it  should  be  surfaced  with 
crushed  rock  or  concrete  to  prevent  the  formation  of  mud- 
holes.  The  tank  should  be  partly  filled  with  water  and  should 
be  cleaned  whenever  it  becomes  dirty.  Crude  oil  poured  on 
the  water  will  keep  the  hogs  free  from  lice. 

210.  Hog  cholera.  —  This  is  by  far  the  most  serious  disease 
of  hogs.  It  destroys  about  90  per  cent  of  all  the  hogs  that  die 
of  disease  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  7,000,000  hogs  have 
died  in  one  year  and  the  money  loss  has  averaged  about 
$30,000,000  a  year  for  the  past  forty  years.  Hog  cholera  is 
highly  contagious  and  is  caused  by  a  germ  which  is  carried  easily 
from  sick  animals  to  healthy  ones. 

Methods  for  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  the  disease 
are  fully  outlined  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  834  and  this  pamphlet 
should  be  secured  and  studied  carefully  by  all  those  particularly 
interested  in  the  subject.  The  following  statements  are  from 
this  bulletin : 

With  the  object  of  assisting  the  farmer  to  protect  himself  the  fol- 
lowing suggestions  are  offered :  Hog  houses,  lots,  and  pastures  should 
be  located  away  from  streams  and  public  highways,  and  the  houses 
and  lots  should  be  arranged  so  that  they  may  be  cleaned  and  dis- 


416  Effective  Farming 

infected  readily.  They  should  be  exposed  as  far  as  possible  to  sun- 
light, which  is  the  cheapest  and  one  of  the  best  disinfectants.  Hog 
lots  should  not  be  used  for  yarding  wagons  and  farm  implements 
and  should  not  be  entered  with  team  and  wagon,  particularly  when 
loading  stock  for  shipment  to  market  and  when  returning  from  stock- 
yards and  public  highways.  No  one  should  be  allowed  to  enter  hog 
lots  unless  there  is  assurance  that  he  does  not  carry  infection.  Farm- 
ers and  their  help  should  disinfect  their  shoes  before  entering  hog 
lots  after  returning  from  public  yards,  sales,  and  neighboring  farms. 

Wallow  holes  and  cesspools  should  be  drained,  filled  in,  or  fenced 
off. 

Runs  underneath  buildings  should  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  and 
then  boarded  up.  Straw  stacks  that  have  been  frequented  by  sick 
hogs  should  be  burned  or  removed  to  the  field  and  plowed  under.  In 
fact,  it  is  a  dangerous  practice  to  leave  remnants  of  stacks  from  year 
to  year,  and  new  tenants  should  beware  of  this  source  of  danger. 

Hogs  that  do  not  recover  fully  from  cholera  should  be  destroyed, 
as  they  remain  constantly  dangerous. 

All  animals  that  die  on  the  farm,  as  well  as  the  entrails  removed 
from  animals  at  butchering  time,  should  be  properly  disposed  of  by 
burning  to  ashes,  or  by  burying  with  quicklime  away  from  streams 
and  low  places.  Unless  disposed  of  in  this  way  they  will  serve  to 
attract  buzzards,  crows,  and  dogs  that  may  bring  or  carry  away  the 
germs  of  hog  cholera. 

Newly  purchased  stock,  stock  borrowed  or  loaned  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, and  stock  exhibited  at  public  fairs  should  be  placed  in  isolated 
pens  and  kept  there  for  at  least  fifteen  days  before  being  turned  in 
with  the  herd.  During  this  quarantine  care  should  be  used  to  prevent 
carrjdng  infection  from  these  to  other  pens  by  those  who  feed  or  care 
for  stock. 

Hogs  should  not  be  allowed  to  follow  newly  purchased  stock  unless 
such  stock  has  been  dipped  or  driven  through  a  suitable  disinfectant. 

If  hog  cholera  appears  on  the  farm  a  notice  should  be  posted  at 
the  entrance  to  the  premises  reading  "  HOG  CHOLERA  —  KEEP 
OUT,"  and  all  neighbors  should  be  warned  so  that  they  may  protect 
their  herds.  The  infected  herd  should  be  confined  to  limited  quarters 
that  can  be  cleaned  daily  during  the  presence  of  the  disease  and  sprayed 
occasionally  with  a  disinfectant  consisting  of  one  part  of  compound 
cresol  solution  to  thirty  parts  of  water,  or  with  a  recognized  substitute 
therefor. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  drug  or  combination  of  drugs  is  known 
which  can  be  regarded  as  a  preventive  or  cure  for  hog  cholera  in  a 


Swine  417 

true  sense  of  the  word.  It  is  true  that  a  number  of  preparations  on 
the  market  composed  of  drugs  and  chemicals  are  advertised  to  pro- 
tect hogs  against  cholera  or  to  cure  hogs  affected  with  cholera.  Many 
of  these  so-called  cures  have  been  tested  by  Federal  or  state  institutions, 
and  one  and  all  have  been  found  to  be  worthless.  Farmers  therefore 
are  warned  against  investing  their  money  and  placing  their  faith  in 
hog-cholera  medicines.  Only  one  agent  known  can  be  regarded  as  a 
reliable  preventive.  That  agent  is  "  anti-hog-cholera  serum,"  prepared 
according  to  the  methods  originally  worked  out  by  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry.     This  serum  is  prepared  as  follows : 

Hogs  that  are  immune  against  cholera,  either  naturally,  as  a  result 
of  exposure  to  disease,  or  as  a  result  of  inoculation,  are  injected  with 
large  quantities  of  blood  from  hogs  sick  of  cholera.  The  blood,  which 
contains  the  virus  from  the  sick  hogs,  even  in  minute  quantities, 
would  kill  susceptible  pigs  but  does  not  injure  immunes ;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  causes  immunes  to  become  more  highly  immune.  After  the 
immunes  are  injected  with  virus  as  stated,  they  are  called  "hyper- 
immunes." About  ten  days  or  two  weeks  after  an  immune  has  been 
hyper-immunized,  its  blood  contains  a  large  amount  of  protective  sub- 
stances or  antibodies,  and  it  is  from  such  blood  that  anti-hog-cholera 
serum  is  prepared. 

Two  systems  are  used  in  protecting  hogs  from  cholera  by  inocula- 
tion —  the  "  serum-alone  inoculation"  and  the  "simultaneous  inocula- 
tion." The  serum-alone  inoculation  consists  merely  in  injecting, 
underneath  the  skin  with  a  syringe,  the  serum  which  is  obtained  from 
hyper-immunized  hogs.  The  serum  may  be  used  either  to  immunize 
healthy  hogs  or  to  treat  those  that  are  sick  of  cholera.  Good  serum, 
properly  administered,  is  incapable  of  causing  any  harm  to  the  treated 
animals.  It  does  not  contain  the  germs  of  hog  cholera  and  therefore 
can  not  start  an  outbreak  of  cholera,  even  when  the  methods  of  applica- 
tion are  faulty  or  the  serum  is  of  low  potency.  It  is  in  the  safety  of 
this  method  of  treatment  that  its  chief  advantage  lies. 

This  method  is  always  to  be  recommended  in  preference  to  any 
other  for  treating  sick  hogs.  Unfortunately,  in  healthy  hogs  not 
infected  with  cholera  it  does  not  produce  a  permanent  protection. 
If  it  did  it  would  certainly  be  the  only  method  to  be  recommended. 
The  length  of  protection  which  follows  the  injection  of  serum  alone 
seems  to  depend  to  a  certain  extent  on  the  peculiarities  of  individual 
hogs,  which  can  not  be  determined  beforehand,  and  also  to  some 
extent  on  the  dose  of  serum.  Certain  experiments  have  indicated  that 
the  immunity  lasts  somewhat  longer  in  hogs  which  receive  exceptionally 
large  doses.  Ordinarily  a  farmer  may  count  on  the  immunity  lasting 
2e- 


418  Effective  Farming 

at  least  three  or  four  weeks  following  the  treatment  of  healthy  hogs 
with  serum  alone.  This  immunity  seems  to  last  longer  in  old  hogs  than 
in  young  pigs.  In  some  cases  it  apparently  produces  immunity  which 
lasts  for  two  or  three  months.  At  times,  when  healthy  hogs  are  treated 
with  serum  alone  and  shortly  thereafter  exposed  to  cholera,  they  seem 
to  acquire  a  permanent  immunity,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and 
therefore  serum  alone  can  not  be  depended  on  to  produce  a  lasting 
immunity  even  though  the  treated  pigs  be  promptly  exposed  to  cholera. 
It  has  been  stated  that  serum  alone  can  be  used  to  treat  sick  hogs. 
This  is  true  within  certain  Umitations.  Ordinarily  it  is  efficacious 
in  the  very  early  stage  of  the  disease,  but  apparently  has  only  slight 
effect  when  the  disease  has  advanced  so  that  a  hog  shows  visible 
signs  of  sickness,  such  as  weakness,  lack  of  appetite,  and  sluggishness. 
The  quantity  of  serum  required  for  producing  immunity  or  for 
curing  infected  animals  is  influenced  by  a  number  of  conditions,  chief 
among  these  being  the  condition  and  susceptibility  of  the  pigs  and 
the  strength  or  potency  of  the  serum  which  is  used.  No  hard  and 
fast  rule  can  be  laid  down,  but  as  a  sort  of  general  guide  the  doses 
given  below  are  suggested : 

Doses  for  Serum-alone  Inoculation 


Weight  of  Hog 

Dose  op  Sebum 

Below  10  pounds . 

10  cubic  centimeters. 

10  to  15  pounds 

15  cubic  centimeters. 

20  to  30  pounds      ...... 

20  to  25  cubic  centimeters. 

40  to  75  pounds 

30  cubic  centimeters. 

100  to  150  pounds 

40  to  60  cubic  centimeters. 

175  pounds  and  over 

80  cubic  centimeters. 

If  the  herd  is  infected  the  dose  of  serum  should  be  increased  slightly 
for  all  apparently  well  hogs,  and  all  hogs  showing  high  temperatures 
or  other  evidence  of  disease  should  receive  at  least  a  dose  and  a  half 
of  serum. 

In  the  simultaneous  method  of  inoculation,  hog-cholera  virus  is 
used  in  addition  to  the  serum.  It  has  been  stated  above  that  the 
serum  alone  produces  an  immunity  which  lasts  for  only  a  very  short 
time.  The  theory  of  the  simultaneous  inoculation  is  to  administer 
the  germs  of  hog  cholera  in  the  virus  and  at  the  same  time  to  give 
a  dose  of  serum  which  will  protect  the  hogs  from  cholera.     The  virus 


Swine 


419 


enters  the  system  of  the  hog  and  causes  a  reaction  which  results  in 
immunity  like  that  which  is  found  in  hogs  that  recover  from  a  natural 
attack  of  the  disease.  The  serum  being  given  at  the  same  time 
prevents  death  or  serious  sickness  which  would  otherwise  be  caused 
by  the  virus,  and  through  the  combined  action  of  these  two  agents 
the  hogs  are  rendered  immune  against  cholera  for  life. 

In  administering  the  simultaneous  inoculation  the  serum  is  in- 
jected in  the  manner  already  explained,  and  the  virus  is  injected  in 
the  same  manner  but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body.  The  virus, 
of  course,  is  given  in  a  very  small  dose  as  compared  with  the  serum. 
The  doses  for  simultaneous  inoculation  are  indicated  below. 

Doses   of  Serum   and   Virus   in   Simultaneous    Inoculation   of 
Healthy  Hogs 


Weight  of  Hogs 

Dose  op  Sebum 

Dose  of  Virus 

Below  10  pounds     . 

10  cubic  centimeters     . 

10  to  15  pounds  .     . 

15  cubic  centimeters     .     . 

1  cubic  centimeter. 

20  to  30  pounds  .     . 

20  to  25  cubic  centimeters 

1  cubic  centimeter. 

40  to  75  pounds  .     . 

30  cubic  centimeters     . 

1  cubic  centimeter. 

100  to  150  pounds  . 

40  to  60  cubic  centimeters 

2  cubic  centimeters. 

175  pounds  and  over 

80  cubic  centimeters     .     . 

2  cubic  centimeters. 

If  the  herd  is  infected,  the  dose  of  serum  should  be  shghtly  increased 
for  all  apparently  healthy  hogs,  and  all  those  showing  high  temperature 
or  other  evidence  of  disease  should  receive  at  least  a  dose  and  a  half 
of  serum  and  no  virus. 

While  the  serum  alone  has  the  advantage  of  being  harmless,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  producing 
only  a  transitory  immunity.  The  conditions  are  precisely  reversed 
in  the  case  of  the  simultaneous  inoculation.  In  this  case  the  immunity 
is  prolonged,  and  it  is  rare  to  find  a  hog  which  has  been  immunized 
properly  by  the  simultaneous  method  which  again  becomes  susceptible 
to  cholera.  The  principal  objection  to  the  simultaneous  inoculation 
is  the  element  of  danger  caused  by  the  injection  of  the  virus  of  cholera. 
If  the  serum  should  not  be  of  proper  strength,  or  if  a  sufficient  dose  of 
serum  should  not  be  administered,  or  if  the  work  is  not  done  properly, 
a  case  of  hog  cholera  may  be  produced.  Sufficient  work,  however, 
has  been  done  to  show  that  the  simultaneous  inoculation  can  be  ad- 
ministered  with   safety.     Certain   important    things   are   to   be   re- 


420  Effective  Farming 

membered  in  this  connection.  Use  good  serum,  and  give  plenty  of  it. 
Enough  serum  should  be  given  to  prevent  any  signs  of  illness  in  the 
treated  hogs.  To  get  a  lasting  immunity  it  is  not  necessary  to  render 
the  hogs  visibly  sick  from  the  injection.  Apparently  just  as  firm 
immunity  is  secured  when  hogs  show  no  symptoms  of  illness  as  when 
they  are  made  sick  by  the  injection.  This  treatment  should  be 
handled  carefully,  and  those  who  have  studied  this  question  agree 
that  the  simultaneous  inoculation  should  be  administered  only  by 
competent  veterinarians  or  by  skilled  laymen  who  have  had  adequate 
training  in  its  use. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  does  not  prepare 
anti-hog-cholera  serum  for  sale  or  distribution.  For  information 
as  to  where  serum  may  be  obtained  and  the  help  that  may  be  had  in 
combating  hog  cholera,  write  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  or  the  State 
Veterinarian,  Live  Stock  Sanitary  Board,  or  State  Agricultural 
College  of  your  state. 

211.  Mineral  matter  and  tonic  for  hogs.  —  It  is  good 
practice  to  have  before  the  hogs  at  all  times  a  mixture  of  min- 
eral substances.  One  made  of  four  parts  wood-ashes,  one  part 
salt,  and  one  part  sulfur  is  recommended.  Another  is  made 
of  four  parts  wood-ashes,  one  part  salt,  one  part  iron  sulfate, 
and  two  parts  air-slaked  lime. 

A  tonic  recommended  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  as  a  powder  condition,  consists  of  the  following  in- 
gredients thoroughly  mixed : 

Pounds 

Wood  charcoal 1 

Sulfur 1 

Sodium  chloride      . 2 

Sodium  bicarbonate 2 

Sodium  hyposulfite : 2 

Sodium  sulfate 1 

Antimony  sulfide  (black  antimony) 1 

The  powder  is  given  with  the  feed  in  the  proportion  of  a 
tablespoonful  to  each  two  hundred  pounds  of  weight  not 
oftener  than  once  a  day. 


Swine 


421 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Distinguish  between  lard- type  and  bacon- type  swine. 

2.  Contrast  the  Poland-China  and  the  Berkshire  breeds. 

3.  Which  breeds  of  swine  are  well  suited  to  conditions  in  the  corn- 
belt  states? 

4.  Contrast  the  Large  Yorkshire  and  the  Tamworth  breeds. 

5.  How  can  you  tell  a  Chester  White  from  a  Large  Yorkshire,  a 
Duroc-Jersey  from  a  Tamworth,  a  Poland-China  from  a  Berkshire? 

6.  Tell  some  reason  why  hogs  can  be  produced  profitably  in  the 
South. 

7.  Name  some  plants  that  make  good  pasture  for  swine. 

8.  What  preventive  measures  must  be  taken  to  keep  swine 
healthy  ? 

9.  Tell  how  to  make  a  concrete  hog-wallow. 
10.    Give  formulas  for  mineral  mixtures  for  hogs. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Scoring  and  judging  lard-type  hogs.  —  Score  and  judge  hogs 
as  directed  for  this  work  with  the  other  classes  of  live-stock  using  the 
score-card  below,  or  one  from  some  other  source. 

Score-card  for  Fat  Lard-type  Hogs  ^ 


Scale  op  Points 


General  appearance  —  30  per  cent : 

1.  Weight,  score  according  to  age 

2.  Form,  deep,  broad,  medium  length ;   smooth, 

compact,  symmetrical;    standing  squarely 
on  medium  short  legs 

3.  Quality,  hair  smooth  and  fine ;  bone  medium 

size,    clean,    strong;     general    appearance 
smooth  and  refined 

4.  Covering,  finished;    deep,  even,  mellow,  free 

from  lumps  and  wrinkles 


Stand- 
ard 


4 

10 

6 
10 


Points  De- 
ficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


From  Purdue  University  Circular  29. 


422 


Effective  Farming 


Score-card  for  Fat  Lard-type  Hogs  {Continued) 


Scale  of  Points 


Stand- 
ard 


Points  De- 
ficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Head  and  neck  —  8  per  cent : 

5.  Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse    .... 
Eyes,   not  sunken,   clear,   not  obscured  by 

wrinkles 

Face,  short ;   cheeks  full 

Ears,  fine,  medium  size,  attached  neatly  .     . 

Jowl,  full,  firm,  neat 

Neck,  thick,  short,  smooth  to  shoulder     .     . 
Forequarters  —  12  per  cent : 

11.  Shoulders,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  compact  on 

top 

Breast,  full,  smooth,  neat 

Legs,   straight,   short,   strong;    bone  clean; 
hard ;  pasterns  short,  strong,  upright ;  feet 

medium  size 

Body  —  33  per  cent : 

14.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 

Sides  deep,  full,  smooth,  medium  length  .     . 
Back,  broad,   strongly  arched,   thickly  and 

evenly  covered 

Loin,  wide,  thick,  strong 

Belly,  straight,  smooth,  firm 

Hindquarters  —  17  per  cent : 

19.  Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide,  evenly  fleshed     . 

Ham,  heavily  fleshed,  full,  firm,  deep,  wide   . 

Legs,   straight,    short,   strong;     bone  clean, 

hard ;  pasterns  short,  strong,  upright ;  feet 

medium  sized 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 


12. 
13. 


15. 
16. 

17. 
18. 


20. 
21. 
22. 


Total 100 


2.    Scoring  and  judging  bacon-type  hogs.^  —  In  sections  where  bacon 
swine  are  important  a  special  score-card  should  be  used  for  this  type. 


1  From  Agricultural  Education   Monthly,  No.   7,  Vol.   II,   U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


Swine  423 

The  following  description  will  aid  in  adapting  the  score-card  and  de- 
scription of  the  lard  hog  to  the  bacon  type. 

Form.  —  The  form  of  swine  of  the  true  bacon  type  is  apparent  at  a 
glance,  especially  in  contrast  with  the  lard  type.  The  bacon  hog  has 
a  longer  body  than  the  lard  type,  showing  less  thickness  and  depth. 
Associated  with  the  longer  body  are  longer  legs  and  snout. 

Quality.  —  Although  the  bacon  hog  may  have  a  coarser  bone  it  is 
marked  by  more  refined  quality  than  the  hog  of  lard  type.  The  hair 
should  be  fine  and  silky  and  lie  close  to  the  body.  The  head  and  legs 
should  present  a  trim,  clear-cut  appearance. 

Condition  and  weight.  —  A  thin  hog  of  a  lard  type  cannot  be  sold 
to  advantage  on  a  market  which  requires  Wiltshire  sides,  because  it 
will  lack  the  characteristic  finish  demanded  for  such  bacon.  There 
should  be  an  interspersing  of  fat  and  lean  with  a  covering  of  1  to  1^ 
inches  of  fat.  This  covering  should  give  the  carcass  a  smooth,  firm 
finish.  The  weight  most  acceptable  for  bacon  hogs  is  from  180  to 
190  pounds,  although  weights  above  and  below  these  are  accepted. 

Head  and  neck.  —  This  type  is  characterized  by  a  longer  neck  and 
snout  than  the  lard  type.  The  jowl  is  also  lighter  and  neater.  A  neck 
too  long  indicates  a  poor  feeder,  while  a  very  short  neck  with  a  full  jowl 
indicates  a  tendency  to  put  on  fat. 

Forequarters.  —  The  shoulders  should  not  be  prominent  but  lie  in 
close  to  the  body,  having  good  width  and  depth  with  ample  covering  of 
flesh.     The  breast  should  not  be  full. 

Body.  —  The  chest  of  a  bacon  hog  is  deep  and  full  but  not  too  broad. 
Although  the  back  carries  the  most  valuable  meat  it  should  not  be  very 
broad,  as  a  broad  back  denotes  a  tendency  to  fatten.  The  width  should 
be  the  same  from  shoulder  to  ham.  The  sides  are  of  most  importance 
in  hogs  of  this  type  as  this  portion  is  depended  upon  for  bacon.  The 
side  should  be  of  moderate  depth  and  as  long  as  is  consistent  with 
strength  in  the  back.  A  sway  back  is  objectionable.  The  sides  should 
be  smooth,  free  from  all  wrinkles  and  seams. 

Hindquarters.  —  There  is  not  the  extreme  development  in  the  hind- 
quarters that  there  is  in  the  lard  hog.  The  rump  should  be  level,  long, 
and  moderately  broad.  The  hams  are  long,  and  tapering,  being  rela- 
tively thin  but  broad  from  front  to  rear.  Although  the  legs  are  longer 
than  in  the  lard  type  they  should  be  clean-cut,  showing  bone  smooth, 
clean,  and  hard.  It  is  important  that  the  legs  be  straight  and  placed 
well  at  the  four  corners  of  the  body,  with  strong  pasterns  to  support 
a  good  weight. 

3.  Cuts  of  pork.  —  Make  a  study  of  the  cuts  of  pork  in  the  same 
manner  as  directed  for  beef  and  mutton.     Refer  to  Illinois  Bulletin  147. 


424  Effective  Farming 


REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  644- 

681.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Coburn,  F.  D.,  Swine  in  America.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Day,  George  E.,  Swine.     Kenyon  Printing  Co. 

Harper,  M.  W.,  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  205,  Pig  Management. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  411,  Feeding  Hogs  in  the  South. 
Farmers'  BuHetin  566,  Boys'  Pig  Clubs. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  438,  Hog  Houses. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  765,  Breeds  of  Swine. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  834,  Hog  Cholera:  Prevention  and  Treatment. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

POULTRY 

Types  of  poultry. 
Breeds  of  chickens. 

Egg  breeds. 

General-purpose  breeds. 

Meat  breeds. 
Poultry  houses. 
Natural  incubation. 
Natural  brooding. 
Artificial  incubation. 
Artificial  brooding. 
Feeding  for  egg  production. 
Feeding  for  meat  production. 

The  importance  of  poultry  can  scarcely  be  realized.  Six 
hundred  million  dollars  are  brought  annually  to  the  farmers 
of  the  United  States  for  eggs  alone,  and  there  is  a  similar  pro- 
portion in  Canada.  Much  of  this  revenue  goes  to  the  large 
poultry-raising  establishments,  but  a  very  considerable  part 
of  it  also  goes  to  those  farmers  that  keep  only  a  few  hens  as 
an  incident  of  their  business.  There  is  no  live-stock  so  well 
adapted  to  so  many  farm  conditions  as  is  poultry.  There  is 
also  special  fascination  in  the  rearing  of  fowls.  Young  people 
are  particularly  interested  in  it,  and  all  the  products  are  wanted 
on  the  table  or  find  a  ready  demand  in  the  market.  The  Boys' 
and  Girls'  Poultry  Clubs  have  been  a  great  incentive  to  poultry 
raising.  In  many  of  the  states  the  federal  or  state  government 
pays  an  expert  poultry-man  to  devote  all  of  his  time  to  the 
furthering  of  this  work.  The  county  agent  will  tell  you  how 
to  reach  him.  There  is  a  very  attractive  popular  literature  on 
poultry  raising. 

425 


426 


Effective  Farming 


212.  Types  of  poultry.  —  Chickens  are  classified  in  two 
ways,  according  to  the  origin  of  the  breed  and  according  to  the 
utiUty  of  the  fowls.  As  to  breed,  they  are  listed  as  Mediter- 
ranean, American,  Asiatic,  English,  Belgian,  French,  German, 
Dutch,  and  Polish  with  special  classes  including  game.  Ban- 
tams, Silkies,  Sultans,  and  Frizzles.  From  the  utility  stand- 
point they  are   classified   as   egg,  general-purpose,  meat,  and 


POINTS 


Fig.  187.  —  Glossary  chart  giving  the  names  of  the  various  sections 
of  a  male  fowl. 


ornamental,  or  fancy,  breeds.  For  school  work  this  classifi- 
cation from  the  utility  standpoint  is  especially  applicable  and 
is  the  one  considered  here.  As  with  the  other  classes  of  live- 
stock, the  external  parts  of  the  fowl  should  be  studied.  Fig. 
187  is  from  a  drawing  prepared  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  shows  these  parts  very  clearly. 

The  general  term  poultry  includes,  besides  chickens,  ducks, 


Poultry  427 

geese,  Guinea  fowls,  peafowls,  and  turkeys.  In  the  United 
States,  chickens  are  by  far  the  most  important  class,  poultry 
as  a  whole  being  approximately  95  per  cent  chickens,  1.5 
per  cent  geese,  1  per  cent  turkeys,  slightly  less  than  1  per 


Fig.  188.  —  Light  Brahma  male.     Most  popular  of  the  meat  type. 
Fair  layers  of  large  brown  eggs. 

cent   ducks,    and   the   remaining   classes   together   about    1.5 
per  cent. 

Fowls  of  the  meat  type  (Figs.  188  and  189)  have  a  short, 
wide  back,  a  well  developed  breast,  a  box-like  body,  and  carry 
a  large  quantity  of  flesh.  Fowls  of  the  egg  type  (Fig.  190) 
have  long  backs,  full  chests,  and  well  developed  abdomens; 
this  form  is  conducive  to  egg-producing  capacity  and  stamina. 


428 


Effective  Farming 


Fowls  of  the  general-purpose,  or  utility,  type  (Figs.  191,  192, 
193)  show  a  conformation  somewhat  between  the  meat  and 
egg  types.  They  are  bred  to  produce  more  eggs  than  the  fowls 
of  the  meat  type  and  more  meat  than  the  fowls  of  the  egg  type. 

They  may  be  considered 
to  be  dual-purpose  ani- 
mals. 

Prolificacy  of  egg-pro- 
duction is  often  indi- 
cated by  the  size  of  the 
comb,  small  combs  usu- 
ally being  found  on  the 
birds  of  the  meat  type, 
large  combs  on  those 
of  the  egg  type,  and 
medium-sized  combs  on 
those  of  the  general- 
purpose  type.  The  dif- 
ferences can  be  seen  in 
the  pictures  already  re- 
ferred to. 

The  habits  of  the 
different  types  of  fowls 
vary  considerably. 
Birds  of  the  meat  type 
are  slow  movers  and 
of  a  quiet  disposition, 
tendencies  that  are  conducive  to  fat.  They  may  be  likened 
to  beef  animals  in  this  respect.  Fowls  of  the  egg  type  are 
nervous,  alert,  active,  and  constantly  foraging  for  food.  They 
are  similar  in  disposition  to  dairy  cows  that  show  nervous 
temperament.  Fowls  of  the  general-purpose  type  show  a 
blending  in  disposition  of  the  other  two ;  they  are  not  so 
slow-moving  as  the  meat  type  and  not  so  alert  as  the  egg 
type. 


Fig.  189.  —  Buff  Cochin  male,  showing  the 
feathering  of  the  legs  and  toes.  Meat  type 
of  poultry. 


Fig.  190.  —  White  Leghorn  male.  The 
most  popular  breed  for  commercial 
poultry  farms.  The  hens  are  non- 
sitters  ;  they  make  excellent  summer 
layers,  and  when  cared  for  properly 
make  good  winter  layers. 


Fig.  191.  —  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male, 
showing  the  barring  desired  in  this 
popular  breed  of  general-purpose  fowl. 
Barred  Rocks  mature  early  and  are 
good  winter  layers. 


Fig.  192.  —  Rhode  Island  Red  male,  show- 
ing the  long  back  and  low  carriage  of 
tail  desired  in  this  popular  general-pur- 
pose breed. 

429 


Fig.  193.  — White  Wyandotte  male.  A 
bird  made  up  of  curves.  The  hens  are 
good  winter  layers  and  the  cockerels  are 
in  demand  for  broilers. 


430 


Effective  Farming 


213.  Breeds  of  chickens.  —  The  Standard  of  Perfection, 
the  publication  of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  lists 
thirty-eight  breeds  and  one  hundred  four  varieties  of  chickens, 
including  both  utility  and  fancy  fowls.  In  Table  XV  are 
given  the  names  of  the  utility  breeds  and  varieties  most 
commonly  found  in  the  United  States,  their  native  home,  and 
the  color  of  the  egg-shells. 

TABLE   XV 

American  Breeds  of  Chickens 

egg  breeds 


Breed 

Variett 

Native  Home 

Color  of 
Egg-Shell 

Leghorn      .     . 

Single-comb  black 
Single-comb  brown 
Rose-comb  brown 
Single-comb  buff 
Rose-comb  buff 
Silver 

Single-comb  white 
Rose-comb  white 

Italy 

White 

1 

Ancona        .     .     . 

Mottled 
Single-comb 

Italy 

W^hite 

Andalusian      .     . 

Blue 

Italy 

White 

Minorca      .     .     . 

Single-comb  black 
Rose-comb  black 
Single-comb  white 

Italy 

White 

Spanish       .     .     . 

White-faced  black 

Spain 

White 

Hamburg    .     .     . 

Black 

Golden-penciled 

Golden-spangled 

Silver-penciled 

Silver-spangled 

HoUand 

White 

Campine     .     .     . 

Golden 
Silver 

Belgium 

White 

Poultry 


431 


TABLE   XV    (Continued) 

GENERAL-PURPOSE    BREEDS 


Breed 

Variety 

Native  Home 

Color  of 
Egg-Shell 

Plymouth  Rock  . 

Barred 

America 

Brown 

Buff 

or  tinted 

Columbian 

Partridge 

• 

Silver-penciled 

White 

Wyandotte      .     . 

Black 

America 

Brown 

Buff 

or  tinted 

Columbian 

Golden-laced 

Partridge 

Silver-laced 

White 

Rhode  Island  Red 

Single-comb 

America 

Brown 

Rose-comb 

or  tinted 

Dominique       .     . 

Rose-comb 

America 

Brown 

or  tinted 

Java       .... 

Black 

America 

Brown 

Mottled 

or  tinted 

Orpington        .     . 

Single-comb  buff 
Single-comb  black 
Single-comb  white 

England 

Tinted 

Dorking      .     .     . 

Colored 

Silver-gray 

White 

England 

White 

Houdan       .     .     . 

Mottled 

France 

White 

MEAT    BREEDS 


Brahma       .     .     . 

Light 
Dark 

India 

Brown 
or  tinted 

Cochin         .     .     . 

Buff 

Partridge 
White 
Black 

China 

Brown 
or  tinted 

Langshan    .     .     . 

Black 
White 

China 

Brown 
or  tinted 

432  Effective  Farming 

214.  Poultry  houses.  —  Two  general  types  of  houses  for 
poultry  are  in  use  —  the  colony  house  and  the  continuous 
apartment  house.  Colony  houses  are  small  and  are  usually 
built  on  skids,  or  runners,  and  moved  about  from  place  to  place 
as  occasion  demands.  Continuous  apartment  houses  are 
built  where  they  are  to  stand  permanently.  Many  different 
styles  of  houses  of  each  type  are  in  use.  A  farmer  or  a  pupil 
desiring  to  build  poultry  houses  will  profit  by  corresponding 
with  officers  of  his  state  experiment  station  and  with  the  Divi- 
sion of  Poultry  Investigations  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Washington  from  whom  he  can  secure  much  informa- 
tion and  plans  for  the  buildings.  Among  the  requirements 
to  be  considered  in  building  poultry  houses  are  :  (1)  they  must 
be  on  well  drained  soils ;  (2)  they  should  face  the  south  or 
southeast ;  (3)  they  should  be  so  built  that  they  can  be  kept 
clean ;  (4)  ventilation  must  be  provided  for ;  (5)  room  for  a 
scratching  place  near  the  house  must  be  available. 

215.  Natural  incubation.  —  The  hen  should  be  moved  from 
her  regular  laying  nest  at  night  and  dusted  thoroughly  with 
insect  powder  before  putting  on  the  new  nest.  At  first  one 
or  two  china  eggs  should  be  put  under  her  and  a  board  placed 
in  front  of  the  nest  to  keep  her  from  leaving.  On  the  second 
day,  in  the  evening,  the  board  should  be  removed  and  feed  and 
water  placed  where  the  hen  can  reach  it.  If  she  leaves  the  nest 
and  after  feeding  returns  to  it,  she  really  desires  to  sit.  The 
china  eggs  should  then  be  removed  and  those  that  are  to  be 
incubated  substituted.  During  the  period  of  incubation, 
twenty-one  days,  plenty  of  feed  and  water  must  be  provided  for 
the  hen.  At  hatching  time  she  should  not  be  disturbed  unless 
she  becomes  restless  and  pecks  at  or  steps  on  the  chicks,  in 
which  case  the  chicks  that  are  hatched  should  be  removed  as 
soon  as  they  are  dry,  placed  in  a  basket  that  is  lined  with  a 
piece  of  wool  cloth,  and  put  in  a  warm  place.  When  all 
of  the  eggs  are  hatched,  these  chicks  are  put  back  with  the 
hen  and  all  removed  to  the  brood  coop. 


Poultry  433 

The  poultry  specialists  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  make  the  following  suggestions  about  natural 
incubation : 

"  If  several  hens  are  sitting  in  the  same  room,  see  that  they 
are  kept  on  the  nests,  allowing  them  to  come  off  only  once  a 
day  to  receive  feed  and  water,  the  feed  to  consist  of  corn,  wheat, 
or  both.  If  there  are  any  that  do  not  desire  to  come  off  them- 
selves, they  should  be  taken  off.  Hens  usually  return  to  their 
nests  before  there  is  any  danger  of  the  eggs  chilling,  but  if  they 
do  not  go  back  in  half  an  hour  in  ordinary  weather,  they  should 
be  put  on  the  nest.  Where  a  large  number  of  sitters  are  kept 
in  one  room  it  is  advisable  to  let  them  off  in  groups  of  from  four 
to  six  at  a  time.  The  eggs  and  nests  should  be  examined  and 
cleaned,  removing  all  broken  eggs  and  washing  those  that  are 
soiled ;  in  the  latter  case  the  soiled  nesting  material  should  be 
removed  and  clean  straw  added.  Nests  containing  broken 
eggs  that  the  hen  is  allowed  to  sit  on  soon  become  infested  with 
mites  and  Hce.  These  cause  the  hens  to  become  uneasy  and 
leave  the  nest,  and  hence  the  loss  of  valuable  sittings  of  eggs. 
In  mite-infested  nests  the  hen,  if  fastened  in,  will  often  be  found 
standing  over  rather  than  sitting  on  the  eggs. 

"  Many  eggs  that  are  laid  in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring 
are  infertile.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable  to  set  several  hens 
at  the  same  time.  After  the  eggs  have  been  under  the  hens 
from  five  to  seven  days,  the  time  depending  somewhat  on  the 
color  and  thickness  of  the  shells  —  white-shelled  eggs  being 
easier  to  test  than  those  having  brown  shells  —  they  should 
be  tested,  the  infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs  removed,  and  the 
fertile  eggs  put  back  under  the  hen.  In  this  way  it  is  often 
possible  to  put  all  the  eggs  that  several  hens  originally  started 
to  sit  on  under  fewer  hens  and  reset  the  others.  For  example, 
thirty  eggs  are  set  under  three  hens  at  the  same  time,  ten  under 
each.  At  the  end  of  seven  days  we  find  on  testing  the  eggs 
from  all  the  hens  that  ten  are  infertile,  which  leaves  us  twenty 
eggs  to  reset,  which  we  do  by  putting  them  under  two  hens 
2p 


434  Effective  Farming 

and  have  the  remaining  hen  sit  over  again  after  she  has  sat 
only  seven  days.  In  this  way  considerable  time  can  be  saved 
in  hatching  operations. 

"  An  egg,  whether  impregnated  or  not,  has  a  small  grayish 
spot  on  the  surface  of  the  yolk,  known  as  the  '  germinal  spot.' 
As  soon  as  a  fertile  egg  is  placed  under  a  hen,  or  in  an  incubator, 
development  begins.  All  eggs  should  be  tested  at  least  twice 
during  the  period  of  incubation,  preferably  on  the  seventh 
and  fourteenth  days,  and  the  infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs 
removed.  White  eggs  can  be  tested  on  the  fourth  or  fifth 
day,  while  the  development  in  eggs  having  brown  shells  often 
cannot  be  seen  by  the  use  of  an  ordinary  egg  tester  until  the 
seventh  day.  Dead  germs  soon  decay  and  give  off  a  bad  odor, 
if  allowed  to  remain  under  the  hen.  Infertile  eggs  make  good 
feed  for  young  chickens  and  are  often  used  in  the  home  for 
culinary  purposes.  Electric  or  gas  lamps  may  be  used  in  a 
box  with  a  hole  slightly  smaller  than  an  egg  cut  in  the  side  of 
the  box  and  at  the  same  level  as  the  light.  They  may  also  be 
tested  by  sunlight,  or  daylight,  using  a  shutter  or  curtain  with 
a  small  hole  in  it  for  the  light  to  shine  through. 

"  A  good  home-made  egg-tester,  or  candler,  can  be  made 
from  a  large  shoe  box,  or  any  box  that  is  large  enough  to  go 
over  a  lamp,  by  removing  the  end  and  cutting  a  hole  a  little 
larger  than  the  size  of  a  quarter  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  so 
that  when  it  is  set  over  a  kerosene  lamp  the  hole  in  the  bottom 
will  be  opposite  the  blaze.  A  hole  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar 
should  be  cut  in  the  top  of  the  box  to  allow  the  heat  to  escape. 

"  The  eggs  are  tested  with  the  large  end  up,  so  that  the  size 
of  the  air  cell  may  be  seen  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  embryo. 
The  testing  should  take  place  in  a  dark  room.  The  infertile 
egg,  when  held  before  the  small  hole,  with  the  lamp  lighted 
inside  the  box,  will  look  perfectly  clear,  the  same  as  a  fresh 
one,  while  a  fertile  egg  will  show  a  small  dark  spot,  known  as 
the  embryo,  with  a  mass  of  little  blood  veins  extending  in  all 
directions,  if  the  embryo  is  living;    if  dead,  and  the  egg  has 


Poultry  435 

been  incubated  for  at  least  forty-six  hours,  the  blood  settles 
away  from  the  embryo  toward  the  edges  of  the  yolk,  forming 
in  some  cases  an  irregular  circle  of  blood,  known  as  a  blood 
ring.  Eggs  vary  in  this  respect,  some  showing  only  a  streak 
of  blood.  All  infertile  eggs  should  be  removed  at  the  first 
test.  The  eggs  containing  strong,  living  embryos  are  dark  and 
well  filled  up  on  the  fourteenth  day,  and  show  a  clear,  sharp, 
distinct  line  of  demarcation  between  the  air  cell  and  the  grow- 
ing embryo,  while  dead  germs  show  only  partial  development, 
and  lack  this  clear,  distinct  outline.'' 

216.  Natural  brooding.  —  Before  moving  the  hen  and  chicks 
to  the  brood  coops,  she  should  be  powdered  with  insect  powder 
to  get  rid  of  the  lice.  The  brood  coop  must  be  kept  clean,  and 
if  mites  are  found,  the  coop  should  be  sprayed  with  kerosene. 
An  inch  or  so  of  sand  or  a  thin  layer  of  straw  should  be  kept 
on  the  floor  of  the  coop  and  the  coop  moved  each  day  to  fresh 
shady  ground.  As  long  as  she  will  care  for  them  the  hen  should 
be  left  with  the  chicks.  The  following  directions  from  Farm- 
ers^ Bulletin  624  will  be  found  very  satisfactory  for  feeding 
the  chickens : 

"  As  soon  as  the  chickens  will  eat  whole  wheat,  cracked 
corn,  and  other  grains,  the  small-sized  chick  feed  can  be  elim- 
inated. In  addition  to  the  above  feeds  the  chickens'  growth 
can  be  hastened  if  they  are  given  sour  milk,  skim-milk,  or 
buttermilk  to  drink.  Growing  chickens  kept  on  a  good  range 
may  be  given  all  their  feed  in  a  hopper,  mixing  two  parts  by 
weight  of  cracked  corn  with  one  part  of  wheat,  or  equal  parts 
of  cracked  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  in  one  hopper  and  the  dry 
mash  for  chickens  in  another.  The  beef  scrap  may  be  left 
out  of  the  dry  mash  and  fed  in  a  separate  hopper,  so  that  the 
chickens  can  eat  all  of  this  feed  they  desire.  If  the  beef  scrap 
is  to  be  fed  separately  it  is  advisable  to  wait  until  the  chicks 
are  ten  days  old,  although  many  poultrymen  put  the  beef 
scrap  before  the  young  chickens  at  the  start  without  bad 
results.     Chickens  confined  to  small  yards  should  always  be 


436  Effective  Farming 

supplied  with  green  feed,  such  as  lettuce,  sprouted  oats,  alfalfa, 
or  clover,  but  the  best  place  to  raise  chickens  successfully  is 
on  a  good  range  where  no  extra  green  feed  is  required.  Fine 
charcoal,  grit,  and  oyster  shell  should  be  kept  before  the 
chickens  at  all  times,  and  cracked  or  ground  bone  may  be  fed 
where  the  chickens  are  kept  in  small  bare  yards,  but  the  latter 
feed  is  not  necessary  for  chickens  that  have  a  good  range." 

Young  chickens  should  be  fed  from  three  to  five  times 
daily,  depending  on  one's  experience  in  feeding.  Undoubtedly 
chickens  can  be  grown  faster  by  feeding  five  times  daily  than  by 
feeding  three  times  daily,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
more  harm  can  be  done  to  the  young  chickens  by  overfeeding 
than  by  underfeeding,  and  at  no  time  should  they  be  fed  more 
than  barely  to  satisfy  their  appetites  and  to  keep  them  exer- 
cising, except  at  the  evening  or  last  meal,  when  they  should  be 
given  all  they  will  eat.  Greater  care  must  be  exercised  not  to 
overfeed  young  chicks  that  are  confined  than  those  that  have 
free  range,  as  leg  weakness  is  apt  to  result  in  those  confined. 

"  The  young  chicks  may  be  fed  any  time  after  they  arfe  36  to 
48  hours  old,  whether  they  are  with  a  hen  or  in  a  brooder.  The 
first  feed  may  contain  either  hard-boiled  eggs,  johnny  cake, 
stale  bread,  pinhead  oatmeal,  or  rolled  oats,  which  feeds  or 
combinations  may  be  used  with  good  results.  Mashes  mixed 
with  milk  are  of  considerable  value  in  giving  the  chickens  a 
good  start  in  life,  but  the  mixtures  should  be  fed  in  a  crumbly 
mass  and  not  in  a  sloppy  condition.  After  the  chickens  are 
two  months  old  they  may  be  fed  four  times  daily,  and  after 
three  months  old  three  times  daily,  with  good  results.  Johnny- 
cake  composed  of  the  following  ingredients  in  the  proportions 
named  is  a  very  satisfactory  feed  for  young  chickens :  one 
dozen  infertile  eggs  or  one  pound  of  sifted  beef  scraps  to  ten 
pounds  of  corn  meal ;  add  enough  milk  to  make  a  pasty  mash, 
and  one  tablespoonful  of  baking  soda.  Bake  into  a  cake.  Dry 
bread  crumbs  may  be  mixed  with  hard  boiled  eggs,  making 
about  one-fourth  of  the  mixture  of  eggs,  or  rolled  oats  may  be 


Poultry  437 

used  in  place  of  the  bread  crumbs.  Feed  the  bread  crumbs, 
rolled  oats,  or  johnny  cake  mixtures  five  times  daily  for  the 
first  week,  then  gradually  substitute  for  one  or  two  feeds  of 
the  mixture,  finely  cracked  grains  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of 
cracked  wheat,  finely  cracked  corn,  and  pinhead  oatmeal  or 
hulled  oats,  to  which  about  5  per  cent  of  cracked  peas  or  broken 
rice  and  2  per  cent  of  charcoal,  millet,  or-  rape  seed  may  be 
added.  A  commercial  chick  feed  may  be  substituted  if  de- 
sired. The  above  ration  can  be  fed  until  the  chicks  are  two 
weeks  old,  when  they  should  be  placed  on  grain  and  a  dry  or 
wet  mash  mixture. 

"  After  the  chicks  are  ten  days  old  a  good  growing  mash, 
composed  of  two  parts  by  weight  of  bran,  two  parts  middlings, 
one  part  cornmeal,  one  part  low-grade  wheat  flour  or  red-dog 
flour,  and  10  per  cent  sifted  beef  scrap,  may  be  placed  in  a 
hopper  and  left  before  them  at  all  times.  The  mash  may  be 
fed  either  wet  or  dry;  if  wet,  only  moisture  (either  milk  or 
water)  should  be  added  to  make  the  feed  crumbly,  but  in  no 
sense  sloppy.  When  this  growing  mash  or  mixture  is  not  used 
a  hopper  containing  bran  should  be  accessible  to  the  chickens 
at  all  times. 

"  When  one  has  only  a  few  chickens  it  is  less  trouble  to  pur- 
chase the  prepared  chick  feeds,  but  where  a  considerable  num- 
ber are  reared  it  is  sometimes  cheaper  to  buy  the  finely  cracked 
grains  and  mix  them  together.  Many  chick  feeds  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  grit  and  may  contain  grains  of  poor  quality, 
so  that  they  should  be  carefully  examined  and  the  quality 
guaranteed  before  they  are  purchased." 

217.  Artificial  incubation.  —  Lack  of  care  and  attention  to 
details  are  responsible  for  the  small  hatches  that  so  commonly 
result  in  artificial  incubation.  The  following  summary  of 
directions  by  Harry  M.  Lamon  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  585  is  an 
excellent  guide  to  those  using  incubators : 

"  Follow  the  manufacturer's  directions  in  setting  up  and 
operating  an  incubator. 


438  Effective  Farming 

"  See  that  the  incubator  is  running  steadily  at  the  desired 
temperature  before  fiUing  with  eggs.  Do  not  add  fresh  eggs 
to  a  tray  containing  eggs  which  are  undergoing  incubation. 

"  Turn  the  eggs  twice  daily  after  the  second  and  until  the 
nineteenth  day.  Cool  the  eggs  once  daily,  according  to  the 
weather,  from  the  seventh  to  the  nineteenth  day. 

"  Turn  the  eggs  before  caring  for  the  lamps. 

"  Attend  to  the  machine  carefully  at  regular  hours. 

*'  Keep  the  lamp  and  wick  clean. 

"  Test  the  eggs  on  the  seventh  and  fourteenth  days. 

''  Do  not  open  the  machine  after  the  eighteenth  day  until 
the  chickens  are  hatched." 

218.  Artificial  brooding.  —  When  the  chickens  are  to  be 
brooded  artificially,  they  are  usually  left  in  the  incubator  with- 
out feed  for  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  after  hatching. 
After  this  period  they  are  taken  to  the  brooder  which  should 
have  been  in  operation  for  a  day  or  more  at  the  proper  temper- 
ature. The  proper  temperature  during  the  time  the  chicks 
are  in  the  brooder  depends  on  how  near  the  thermometer  is 
to  the  source  of  heat,  the  age  of  the  chickens,  and  the  weather. 
Usually,  the  temperature  for  the  first  ten  days  will  run  from 
90  to  100°  F.,  averaging  from  93°  to  95° ;  for  the  next  ten 
days,  it  should  be  reduced  to  85°,  and  then  as  long  as  the 
chicks  require  heat  be  kept  at  about  75°.  The  brooder  lamp, 
if  one  is  used,  should  be  cleaned  every  day,  and  the  brooder 
should  be  inspected  often  to  see  whether  it  is  at  the  correct 
temperature.  The  chickens  are  usually  allowed  to  stay  in  the 
brooder  until  they  are  from  six  to  ten  weeks  old,  the  exact  time 
depending  on  the  weather  and  the  condition  of  the  chickens. 

Brooders  in  which  hard  coal  is  the  source  of  heat  are  used 
on  many  poultry  farms  and  seem  to  give  satisfactory  results. 
They  are  much  easier  to  care  for  than  the  lamp  type. 

219.  Feeding  for  egg  production.  —  Hens  require  a  narrow 
ration.  Wheeler,  from  a  large  number  of  tests  at  the  New 
York  Experiment  Station,  has  found  that  a  ration  having  a 


Poultry  439 

nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 4.2  gives  good  results.  The  natural 
feed  of  poultry  consists  of  seeds,  insects,  green  forage,  and  grit 
and  to  provide  feeds  similar  to  these,  the  chickens  should  be 
given  grains,  mill-products,  meat-meals,  skim-milk,  oyster 
shells,  green  feed,  and  grit.  The  following  mixtures  are  recom- 
mended by  the  Poultry  Department  of  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  New  York : 

Grain 

winter  ration 

Wheat        60  pounds 

Corn 60  pounds 

Oats 30  pounds 

Buckwheat 30  pounds 

SUMMER    RATION 

Wheat        . 60  pounds 

Corn 60  pounds 

Oats ' .     30  pounds 

DRY    MASH 

Corn  meal 60  pounds 

Wheat  middUngs     . 60  pounds 

Wheat  bran 30  pounds 

Alfalfa  meal        10  pounds 

Oil  meal 10  pounds 

Beef  scrap 50  pounds 

Salt       1  pound 

The  hens  should  eat  about  half  as  much  mash  by  weight  as 
whole  grains.  Good  results  are  obtained  by  giving  a  light 
feeding  of  grain  in  the  morning  and  a  larger  one  in  the  after- 
noon. The  grain  is  fed  in  straw  spread  on  the  floor  of  the  pen 
to  induce  the  fowls  to  take  exercise.  The  quantity  should  be 
about  what  the  fowls  will  clean  up  nicely.  The  mash  is  usually 
fed  dry  in  a  hopper  and  is  kept  before  the  hens  all  the  time  so 
they  can  help  themselves  at  will.  Succulent  feed,  also,  should 
be  available  for  the  hens.  Beets,  cabbage,  sprouted  oats,  and 
green  clover  are  good  for  this  purpose,  when  the  fowls  are  kept 
in   yards.     Hens   on   free   range   will   forage    for    succulence. 


440  Effective  Farming 

Grit,  cracked  oyster  shells,  bone,  and  charcoal  should  be  kept 
in  hoppers  before  the  fowls  at  all  times.  They  are  necessary 
for  egg-making  and  the  grinding  of  the  feed. 

220.  Feeding  for  meat  production.  —  Fowls  that  are  to  be 
sold  for  meat  should  be  fattened  for  at  least  ten  days  before 
they  are  put  on  the  market.  This  will  greatly  improve  the 
quality  of  the  meat.  They  should  be  confined  in  small  pens 
or  crates  during  the  feeding  period ;  this  prevents  them  from 
taking  much  exercise.  Just  before  they  are  placed  in  the  inclo- 
sures  and  twice  during  the  fattening  period,  they  should  be 
dusted  with  insect  powder  to  free  them  from  lice.  The  ration 
should  be  a  mixture  of  grains  (usually  ground)  and  animal 
products  like  meat  meal  and  skim-milk.  A  ration  that  has 
been  recommended  is  a  mixture  of  corn  meal,  five  parts  (by 
weight),  ground  oats  with  hulls  removed,  one  part,  meat  meal, 
one  part,  all  moistened  with  sour  milk  and  fed  three  times  a 
day.  The  fowls  must  be  brought  to  full  feed  gradually,  start- 
ing with  a  small  quantity  the  first  day  and  increasing  a  little 
at  each  feeding  until  they  are  getting  all  they  will  eat.  A 
week  is  usually  required  to  bring  them  to  full  feed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  general  conformation  of  the  fowls  of  each  of  the 
three  utility  types. 

2.  Discuss  the  habits  of  fowls  of  the  three  types. 

3.  What  two  general  types  of  poultry  houses  are  in  use?  From 
whom  can  one  secure  information  concerning  the  different  kinds  of 
houses  ? 

4.  State  the  requirements  to  be  considered  when  building  poultry 
houses. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  natural  incubation  of  eggs?  By  artificial 
incubation  of  eggs  ? 

6.  Give  directions  for  brooding  chickens  when  a  hen  is  used. 

7.  What  kind  of  ration  should  be  fed  to  laying  hens  ? 

8.  Outline  the  method  of  feeding  young  chickens. 

9.  Tell  how  to  test  eggs  for  fertility. 
10.   What  should  sitting  hens  be  fed? 


Poultry 


441 


Score-card  for  Utility  Poultry 


Variety 

Points 

Per- 
fect 

Scor- 
er's 

Cor- 
rected 

General  appearance,  30  points  : 

Weight,  according  to  age 

Form,  long,  moderately  deep,  broad,  low-set,  con- 
forming to  breed  type,  top  line  and  under  line 
straight 

2 

8 

6 

7 

7 

5 

3 
3 
2 
2 

1 

4 

4 

6 

10 

12 
4 
6 

8 

Condition,  face  and  head  appurtenances  bright 
red,  eye  bright  and  full,  feathers  glossy,  uni- 
formly well  fleshed  throughout 

Style,  active  and  vigorous,  not  restless,  showing 
strong  character       .     .     .     .    ■ 

Quality,    bone    moderately    fine,    feathers    soft, 
skin  and  scales  mellow,  flesh  fine  texture,  evenly 
distributed 

Head  and  neck,  20  points : 

Head   short,    broad   between    the   eyes,    neither 
coarse  nor  snaky  in  appearance 

Comb  medium  in  size,  bright  in  color,  fine  texture, 
and  well  attached 

Beak  short,  stout,  broad  at  the  base,  well  curved 

Eye  clear  and  full        

Face  short,  full,  with  a  clean-cut  appearance  . 

Wattles  and  lobes  medium  in  size,  fine  in  texture, 
and  smooth 

Neck  moderate  in  length,  well  joined  to  head  and 
shoulders 

Body  and  legs,  50  points  : 

Shoulders  broad  and  rather  flat  on  top  .... 

Back  broad,  fair  length,  width  well  carried  back  . 

Breast  moderately  deep  and  wide,  full  and  round 

Keel  well  forward,  long  and  straight,  well  covered 

with  flesh  throughout 

Tail  well  spread  and  full,  no  pinched  effect     . 

Thighs  medium  length,  plump 

Legs  straight,  fairly  short,  set  well  apart,  strong 
but  not  coarse 

Total 

100 

Remarks 

Name  of  scorer Date 


iFrom  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  281. 


442  Effective  Farming 

EXERCISES 

1.  Classes  of  poultry.  —  The  teacher  should  get  for  class  observa- 
tion two  or  three  fowls  of  each  of  the  utility  types  and  place  them  in 
coops,  or  yards,  near  the  school  where  they  can  be  easily  observed.  Try 
to  get  fowls  of  about  the  same  age.  For  the  meat  type,  use  Brahma, 
Cochin,  or  Langshan ;  for  the  general  purpose  type,  Plymouth  Rock, 
Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red,  or  Orpington;  for  the  egg  type,  Leg- 
horn, Minorca,  or  Hamburg.      (See  Figs.  188  to  193.) 

2.  Scoring  of  poultry.  —  Making  use  of  the  score-card  given  on  the 
previous  page,  score  several  birds.  This  score-card  is  a  very  good  one 
and  is  arranged  from  the  utility  standpoint. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  525- 

587.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Standard  of  Perfection,  American  Poultry  Association.     Mansfield,  O. 
Watson,  George  C,  Farm  Poultry.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Lewis,  H.  R.,  Poultry  Laboratory  Guide.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Lewis,  H.  R.,  Productive  Poultry  Husbandry.     Lippincott  Co. 
Joos,  Robert,  Sticcess  with  Hens.     Forbes  and  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  200,  Turkeys. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  697,  Duck- Raising. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  684,  Squab- Raising. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  452,  Capons  and  Caponizing. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  471,  Eggs  and  their  Value  as  Food. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  682,  A  Simple  Trap  Nest  for  Poultry. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  445,  Marketing  Eggs  through  the  Creamery. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  528,  Hints  to  Poultry  Raisers. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  287,  Poultry  Management. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  594,  Shipping  Eggs  by  Parcel  Post. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  585,  Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  of  Hens^  Eggs. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  624,   Natural  and  Artificial  Brooding  of  Chickens. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  574,  Poultry  House  Construction. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  562,  Organization  of  Boys'  and  Girls'  Poultry  Clubs. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  530,  Important  Poultry  Diseases. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  767,  Goose  Raising. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  791,  Turkey  Raising. 

Farmers'  Bulletins  806  and  898,  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  464,  Lessons  on  Poultry. 
Cornell   University   Agricultural    Experiment    Station   Bulletin    353, 

The  Interior  Quality  of  Market  Eggs. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
FARM   MACHINERY 

Lack  of  care  of  farm  machinery. 
Plows. 

Walking,  sulky,  gang,  disc,  subsoil. 
Harrows, 

Disc,  spring-tooth,  spike-tooth,  blade. 
Cultivators. 

One-horse,  straddle-row. 
Weeders. 
Planting  implements. 

Broadcast  seeders. 

Grain  drills. 

Corn-  and  cotton-planters. 

Potato-planters. 

Transplanters. 
Hay-harvesting  machinery. 

Mowers. 

Rakes. 

Tedders. 

Loaders. 

Stackers. 

Harpoon  forks  and  slings. 
Small  grain,  corn,  and  potato  harvesters. 
Threshing  machines. 
Farm  tractors. 

In  the  days  when  the  crooked  stick  was  used  as  a  plow  and 
most  of  the  farm  labor  was  performed  by  hand,  a  man  by  his 
own  efforts  could  crop  only  a  very  few  acres.  To-day  with  the 
aid  of  the  many  efficient  machines  one  can  farm  a  large  acreage, 
which  means  increased  crops.  This  gives  more  food  for  the 
nation  and  releases  men  for  other  kinds  of  work.     There  are 

443 


444  Effective  Farming 

machines  for  practically  every  major  kind  of  farm  work  and 
they  are  not  very  expensive  considering  the  materials  that  enter 
into  their  construction.  Farm  machines  not  only  save  time, 
but  often  make  possible  the  saving  of  a  crop  that  by  reason  of 
rain  or  some  other  weather  condition  would  be  lost.  How 
extensively  machinery  may  be  used  on  any  farm  will  depend 
largely  on  size  of  farm,  kind  of  product,  and  the  labor  supply. 
With  the  high  price  of  labor  on  American  farms,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  securing  it,  machinery  and  labor-saving  implements 
are  much  employed ;  yet  it  is  easily  possible  to  invest  too  much 
money  in  machinery  in  proportion  to  the  available  capital. 
The  American  ingenuity  in  farm  machinery  is  well  known, 
and  is  a  source  of  pride. 

221.  Lack  of  care  of  farm  machinery.  —  In  the  United  States 
a  very  unfortunate  condition  found  is  the  absolute  lack  of 
care  which  the  farm  machinery  receives  on  many  farms.  This 
lack  of  care  is  seen  in  (1)  improper  handling  of  the  machines 
while  in  use  and  (2)  improper  care  while  not  in  use.  It  too 
often  happens  that  the  operator  of  a  machine  will  take  it  to 
the  field  for  use  when  it  is  out  of  adjustment  or  when  certain 
bolts  and  screws  are  out  of  place ;  this  soon  results  in  permanent 
injury  and  if  continued  the  farmer  finds  it  necessary  to  purchase 
a  new  machine.  The  operator  should  understand  the  working 
parts  of  the  machine  and  be  able  to  adjust  them  properly 
before  using.  Whenever  a  screw  or  bolt  becomes  loose,  it  should 
be  tightened,  the  bearings  should  be  kept  well  oiled,  and  all 
parts  should  work  smoothly. 

A  properly  equipped  shop  on  the  farm  where  minor  repairs 
can  be  made  is  useful  in  keeping  machinery  in  good  condition. 
The  shop  need  not  be  a  separate  building ;  it  may  be  a  part  of 
a  storage  shed  or  a  wagon  house.  It  should  not,  however,  be 
part  of  the  barn,  because  of  danger  of  fire  from  the  forge. 

Farm  machinery  should  be  protected  from  the  weather. 
Exposure  to  weather  for  a  season  will  do  more  harm  to  a  ma- 
chine than  the  wear   caused   by   its   use   during   the   season. 


Farm  Machinery  445 

On  American  farms  the  average  life  of  a  grain-binder,  a  machine 
costing  about  $125,  is  about  five  years.  However,  experience 
has  shown  that  with  proper  care  a  binder  will  give  efficient  serv- 
ice for  at  least  fifteen  years.  This  same  condition  holds  true 
with  most  farm  implements. 

A  shed  in  which  machinery  can  be  stored  should,  like  a  shop, 
be  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  every  farm.  It  is  poor  policy 
to  buy  good  machinery  and  convert  it  into  worthless  junk  in 
a  few  years,  because  of  the  lack  of  a  storage  place. 

222.  Plows.  —  The  most  important  implement  on  the  farm 
is  the  plow,  for  by  its  use  the  soil  is  turned  over  and  pulverized 
and  made   ready   for   forming   the   proper  bed  in  which  the 


Fig.  194.  —  Bottom  view  of  a  walking  plow.     1,  share  ;  2,  mold  board  ; 
3,  landside  ;  4,  frog;  5,  brace;  6,  beam;  7,  clevis;  8,  handle. 

seed  is  to  be  planted.  The  first  plows  were  crooked  sticks 
that  merely  scratched  the  surface  of  the  land.  The  next  im- 
provement was  an  implement  that  would  turn  the  top  soil 
over  and  expose  it  to  the  weather.  This  was  followed  by  the 
modern  plow  that  not  only  turns  over  the  furrow-slice,  but  in 
the  operation  causes  a  shearing  motion  between  the  soil  par- 
ticles which  aids  in  pulverizing  the  soil.  This  shearing  action 
does  much  to  improve  the  structure  of  the  soil.  The  chief 
kinds  of  plows  are  walking  plows,  sulky  plows,  gang  plows, 
disc  plows,  and  subsoil  plows. 

Walking  plows.  —  The  so-called  walking  plows  are  usually 
drawn  by  one  or  two  horses.  They  can  be  obtained  in  a 
number  of  different  types,  depending  on  the  purpose  for  which 


446 


Effective  Farming 


1 

I 

1 

.  mQ^^^^^^^^^H 

Farm  Machinery 


447 


448  Effective  Farming 

they  are  to  be  used.  More  walking  plows  are  found  on  Ameri- 
can farms  than  any  of  the  other  types.  Fig.  194  shows  the 
parts  of  a  walking  plow.  These  should  be  learned  by  every 
one  who  ever  expects  to  operate  a  plow. 

Sulky  plows.  —  Sulky  plows  are  those  attached  to  a  frame  set 
on  wheels.  The  frame  serves  to  regulate  the  depth  of  plowing. 
Usually  there  is  a  seat  on  the  frame  where  the  operator  can  ride. 
The  implement  shown  in  Fig.  195  is  termed  a  reversible  sulky 
plow.  It  is  provided  with  two  plow  bottoms,  right-hand  and 
left-hand.  When  plowing  back  and  forth  across  a  field,  one 
of  these  plow  bottoms  is  used  for  a  trip  one  way  and  at  the  end 


Fig.  197.  —  Disc  plow. 

of  the  furrow  the  implement  is  turned  and  the  other  plow  bot- 
tom used  for  a  trip  the  other  way  of  the  field. 

Gang  plows.  —  Plows  made  to  turn  two  or  more  furrows  at 
once  are  known  as  gang  plows  (Fig.  196).  They  are  moved 
by  horses  or  tractors  and  are  very  efficient  machines  for  rapid 
plowing.  In  Fig.  196  is  pictured  a  ten-bottom  gang  plow  pro- 
pelled by  a  tractor  and  followed  by  a  corrugated  roller.  An 
outfit  like  this  will  turn  over  much  land  in  a  day. 

Disc  plows.  —  A  rotating  disc  is  used  instead  of  a  curved 
moldboard  in  the  disc  plows  (Fig.  197).  These  implements 
are  especially  useful  in  heavy  soils  and  are  popular  in  many 
localities. 


Farm  Machinery 


449 


Subsoil  plows.  —  What  are  known  as  subsoil  plows  (Fig. 
198)  are  employed  to  follow  in  the  furrow  made  by  a  regular 
plow  for  the  purpose  of  loosening  the  soil  below  the  plow  depth. 


Fig.  198.  —  Subsoil  plow. 


They  do  not  turn  a  furrow.  In  regions  where  hard-pan  is 
found  just  below  plow  depth,  subsoil  plows  are  very  efficient 
for  increasing  the  depth  of  soil  available  for  the  roots. 


l'J9.  —  Disc  harrow. 


223.    Harrows.  —  For  the  purpose  of  following  the  plow  and 

breaking  up  the  clods  and  smoothing  the  surface  soil,  harrows 

are  used.     Disc,  spring-tooth,  spike-tooth,  and  blade  harrows 

or  Acme,  are  the  common  types.     In  choosing  a  harrow  one 

2g 


450 


Effective  Farming 


lgl^ 

k. 

1    - 

d 

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r> 

tf 

m 

''in 

oni. 

^ 

i  ' 

i 

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i 

j     ■'         "i*     '             "'   ^»          ■     .:    ■* 

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V 

Fig.  200.  —  Cutaway  disc  harrow. 

must  be  governed  largely  by  the  character  of  work  to  be  done 
and  the  type  of  soil  on  the  farm. 

Disc  harrows.  —  As  shown  in  Fig.  199,  disc  harrows  are  a 
series  of  round  sharp  discs  mounted  on  a  frame.  When  the 
harrow  is  propelled,  these  discs  revolve  and  cut  into  the  soil. 
They  can  be  adjusted  to  cut  at  an  angle  or  straight  ahead.     The 


Fig.  201.  —  Spring- tooth  harrow. 


Farm  Machinery 


451 


type  illustrated  in  Fig.  200  is  known  as  a  spading  or  cutaway- 
harrow.  A  harrow  of  this  type  gives  a  spading  action  which  is 
efficient  in  cutting  up  clods  and  smoothing  the  soil  and  is  espe- 
cially useful  on  heavy  soils. 

Spring-tooth  harrows.  —  In  the  spring-tooth  harrows  (Fig. 
201)  a  series  of  flat,  curved  blades  is  fitted  on  a  frame.  The 
depth  at  which  the  blades  enter  the  ground  can  be  regulated 
by  means  of  the  levers.  These  harrows  are  especially  efficient 
on  stony  ground  or  on  soil  that  becomes  compacted  easily. 


Fig.  202.  —  Spike-tooth  harrow. 


Spike-tooth  harrows.  —  A  much  used  type  of  harrow  is 
the  spike-tooth  (Fig.  202).  These  harrows  consist  of  a  series 
of  iron  teeth  fitted  into  a  frame  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be 
adjusted  to  stand  in  a  vertical  position  or  be  slanted  either 
forward  or  backward.  They  are  useful  for  stirring  and  smooth- 
ing the  soil. 

Blade  harrows.  —  The  Acme,  or  blade  harrow,  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  203,  consists  of  a  row  of  blades  that  slice  and  turn  the 
soil.     This    harrow  pulverizes  and  smoothes  the  soil,   espe- 


452 


Effective  Farming 


cially  when  it  is  mellow  and  in  good  tilth ;  it  is  a  very  good  type 
for  the  last  harrowing  preparatory  to  planting  the  seed. 

224.    Cultivators.  —  Crops  like  corn,   cotton,   and  potatoes 
are  tilled  between  the  rows  by  cultivators,  machines  equipped 


Fig.  203.  —  "  Acme  "  harrow. 

with  small  blades,  shovels,  or  discs.     Two  types  are  on  the 

market  —  one-horse  cultivators  and  straddle-row  cultivators. 

One-horse  cultivators.  —  In  the  one-horse  type  of  cultivator 

(Fig.  204)   the  implement  is  propelled  between  the  rows  to 

be  cultivated.  This 
sort  is  generally  used 
for  cultivating  small 
areas  or  when  the 
corn  or  other  crop 
has  become  too  tall 
for  the  straddle-row 
type. 

Straddle-row  culti- 
vators. —  Both    one- 
row  (Fig.  205)  and  two-row  (Fig.  206)  straddle-row  cultivators 
are  manufactured.     On  the  former  the  shovels  or  discs  pass  on 
both  sides  of  a  row,  while  in  the  latter  two  rows  are  cultivated 


Fig.  204.  —  One-horse  cultivator. 


Farm  Machinery 


453 


Fro.  205.  —  One-row  straddle  cultivator. 


Fig.  206.  —  Two-row  straddle  cultivator. 


454 


Effective  Farming 


at  a  time.  With  this  implement,  a  man  with  three  horses  can 
cultivate  twice  as  much  ground  in  a  given  time  as  one  man 
and  two  horses  can  with  a  single-row  machine. 

225.  Weeders.  —  The  implements  known  as  weeders,  one 
type  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  207,  are  provided  with  slender, 

flexible  teeth  and  are 
used  chiefly  for  culti- 
vating the  soil  before 
the  plants  are  above 
the  ground  and  for  a 
few  days  thereafter. 
They  are  effective  in 
controlling  weeds, 
which  at  this  period 
of  growth  are  small 
and  easily  killed. 

226.  Planting  im- 
plements. —  Among 
•  the  more  common 
planting  implements  are  broadcast  seeders,  grain  drills,  corn- 
and  cotton-planters,  potato-planters,  and  transplanters. 

Broadcast  seeders.  —  The  broadcast  seeders  are  employed 
chiefly  for  planting  grass  seed  and,  to  a  less  extent,  small  grains. 
The  knapsack  seeder  is  the  simplest  form.  A  bag  with  the 
bottom  opening  into  the  distributing  mechanism  holds  the  seed. 
The  bag  is  held  in  place  by  a  strap  over  the  operator's  shoulder. 
The  wheelbarrow  seeder  is  essentially  a  long  narrow  box  mounted 
on  a  frame  and  wheel  and  provided  with  handles  like  those  of 
a  wheelbarrow.  In  the  bottom  of  the  box  are  openings  that 
are  closed  and  opened  by  means  of  a  vibrating  rod  that  engages 
cogs  attached  to  the  side  of  the  wheel  when  the  seeder  is  pushed 
across  the  ground.  The  horse  broadcast  seeder,  a  third  type, 
has  much  the  appearance  of  a  grain  drill  without  the  tubes  that 
convey  the  grain  to  the  ground.  The  grain  is  held  in  a  long 
hopper  box  from  which  it  is  distributed  through  holes  that  are 


Fig.  207.  — Weeder. 


Farm  Machinery  455 

opened  and  closed  by  the  mechanism  of  the  implement.  The 
endgate  seeder  is  a  metal  hopper  that  is  attached  to  the  end- 
gate  of  a  wagon.  The  seed  is  placed  in  the  hopper  and  is  dis- 
tributed by  means  of  a  mechanism  supplied  with  power  from  a 
sprocket  attached  to  the  wheel  of  the  wagon. 

Grain  drills.  —  These  are  the  implements  generally  employed 
for  planting  the  cereal  crops  (Fig.  48).  There  are  several 
types  manufactured,  but  they  all  consist  essentially  of  the 
wheels,  the  supporting  frame,  the  hopper,  the  feeding  mechan- 
ism, the  tubes  that  convey  the  grain  to  the  ground,  the  furrow 
openers,  and  the  chains  or  wheels  that  cover  the  grain.  In 
some  localities  drills  are  provided  with  fertilizer  and  grass-seed 
attachments. 

Corn-  and  cotton-planters.  —  These  machines  are  of  two  types 
—  hand  planters  and  horse-drawn  planters.     The  former  are 


Fig.  208.  —  One-horse  corn-planter. 

used  for  corn  and  are  employed  where  only  small  areas  are  planted 
or  for  replanting  missing  hills.  The  horse-drawn  planters  are 
either  two-horse  or  one-horse.  The  two-horse  planter  drops 
the  corn  in  hills  or  in  drills  at  certain  regular  distances  apart 
and  plants  two  rows  at  a  time  (Fig.  39).     The  one-horse  planter 


456  Effective  Farming 

(Fig.  208)  plants  one  row  at  a  time.  Most  one-horse  planters 
can  be  adjusted  to  plant  either  corn  or  cotton. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  seed-boxes  are  revolving  plates  with 
holes  or  notches  in  them.  As  the  plate  revolves,  the  grain, 
or  several  grains,  if  planting  in  hills,  drops  into  these  holes  or 
notches  and  is  carried  down  into  the  soil. 

Potato-planters.  —  These  are  very  useful  implements,  a  much- 
used  type  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  88.  The  planters  open 
a  furrow,  drop  either  whole  or  cut  pieces  at  regular  intervals, 
and  cover  the  furrow  with  soil.  Most  potato-planters  are 
equipped  with  fertilizer  attachments. 

Transplanters.  —  These  implements  (Fig.  93)  are  used  ex- 
tensively for  the  transplanting  of  seedlings  of  sweet  potatoes, 
tobacco,  celery,  cabbage,  and  the  like.  They  are  provided 
with  a  tank  or  barrel  for  carrying  water,  a  furrow  opener,  and 
a  covering  device.  Two  boys  usually  ride  on  the  implement 
and  hold  the  plants  in  an  upright  position  until  the  soil  is  pressed 
around  them.  Water  from  the  tank  or  barrel  wets  the  soil 
around  the  plants  as  they  are  set. 

227.  Hay-harvesting  machinery.  —  The  usual  hay-harvest- 
ing machines  are  mowers,  rakes,  tedders,  loaders,  stackers, 
harpoon  forks,  and  slings. 

Mowers.  —  On  a  mower  (Fig.  56)  there  is  a  cutting  bar  that 
is  protected  with  a  series  of  fingers  called  guards.  The  cutter- 
bar  is  a  set  of  triangular  plates  riveted  to  a  bar  of  steel  that 
moves  back  and  forth  over  the  guards.  From  his  position 
on  the  seat  the  operator  can  raise  and  lower  the  cutter-bar  to 
cut  the  grass  at  different  heights.  Mowers  are  either  one- 
horse  or  two-horse ;  in  the  former  type,  they  cut  swaths  three 
to  three  and  one-half  feet  wide ;  the  latter,  from  four  and  one- 
half  to  seven  feet  wide. 

Rakes,  —  There  are  three  general  types  of  hay-rakes  — 
sulky,  side  delivery,  and  sweep  rakes  (Fig.  60).  Sulky  rakes 
have  a  row  of  teeth  that  gather  the  hay  from  the  swath ;  when 
a  large  enough  quantity  has  been  collected,  it  is  dumped  into 


Farm  Machinery  457 

a  windrow.  Side-delivery  rakes  collect  the  hay  and  push  it 
to  one  side  in  a  continuous  windrow  by  means  of  a  system  of 
moving  forks.  Sweep  rakes  have  a  series  of  long  wooden  fin- 
gers that  are  dragged  along  the  ground.  The  implement  is 
hitched  between  two  horses  that  are  kept  some  distance  apart. 
When  a  load  has  been  secured,  the  team  is  driven  to  a  point 
where  the  hay  is  to  be  stacked. 

Tedders.  —  Tedders  are  used  for  shaking  up  hay  that  has  be- 
come wet  or  when  there  is  a  large  yield  that  will  not  cure  prop- 
erly without  being  turned.  They  have  a  number  of  forks  that 
turn  the  hay  over  as  the  implement  is  drawn  over  the  ground. 

Hay-loaders.  —  A  labor-saving  implement  that  is  much 
used  in  handling  hay  is  the  loader  (Fig.  59).  One  of  these 
machines  is  attached  to  the  rear  of  a  hayrack  and  as  the  wagon 
is  moved  forward  the  hay  is  collected  by  a  series  of  fingers 
and  conveyed  to  the  back  end  of  the  rack  from  which  it  is 
distributed  on  the  load  by  hand. 

Stackers.  —  There  are  several  types  of  stackers  in  use.  A  com- 
mon form  is  shown  in  Fig.  61.  This  equipment  is  almost  indis- 
pensable where  large  quantities  of  hay  are  stacked  each  year. 

Harpoon  forks  and  slings.  —  For  getting  the  hay  into  the 
barn  or  shed,  harpoon  forks  or  slings  are  used.  These  appli- 
ances are  attached  to  the  hay  on  a  load,  and  by  means  of  a  rope 
and  pulley  the  fork  or  sling  with  the  hay  holding  to  it  is  elevated 
into  the  barn  and  slid  along  a  track  to  the  point  where  it  is  to 
be  deposited. 

228.  Small-grain,  corn,  and  potato  harvesters.  —  The  im- 
plements used  for  harvesting  small  grains,  corn,  and  potatoes 
have  been  described  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  these  crops 
and  need  not  be  further  explained. 

229.  Threshing  machines.  —  In  the  threshing  machine, 
(Fig.  52)  the  grain  in  the  bundle  is  conveyed  to  a  cylinder  where 
it  is  removed  from  the  head  in  passing  between  the  cylinder 
and  a  concave.  The  grain  sifts  down  through  screens  to  an 
auger  that  delivers  it  from  the  machine.     In  its  passage  through 


458 


Effective  Farming 


the  screens,  dust  and  chaff  are  blown  away  by  an  air  blast 
from  a  fan.     The  straw  passes  over  racks  to  the  stacker. 

230.  Farm  tractors.  —  A  statement  about  farm  machinery 
would  be  incomplete  without  mention  of  the  modern  farm  trac- 
tor. In  recent  years,  these  machines  have  been  much  per- 
fected and  are  now  used  on  many  farms.  For  the  most  part 
they  are  operated  by  gas  engines,  some  form  of  petroleum  being 
the  fuel  employed.  Many  of  them  burn  kerosene  and  gasolene 
mixed;  others  burn  only  gasolene.  Tractors  can  be  secured 
in  a  variety  of  sizes,  from  those  that  can  pull  one  or  two  plows 
to  those  capable  of  pulling  a  dozen  or  more  (Fig.  196).     The 


Fig.  209.  —  A  tractor  pulling  six  seeders. 

machines  have  many  uses.  In  tillage  work,  -they  often  haul 
plows  and  harrows  at  one  operation.  For  planting,  they  can 
be  arranged  to  haul  a  number  of  seeders  (Fig.  209).  For 
harvesting,  they  can  be  attached  to  a  hay-loader  (Fig.  59)  or  to 
several  mowers  (Fig.  56),  or  to  binders  (Fig.  49),  and  a  wide 
swath  can  then  be  handled  in  one  trip  across  the  field.  They 
are  useful  not  only  for  pulling  loads,  but  the  engines  can  also 
be  used  to  pump  water,  run  the  thresher  (Fig.  210),  saw  wood, 
and  the  like.  Tractors  are  made  in  two  general  styles,  those 
with  high  wheels  and  those  with  a  creeping  tread.  The  latter 
are  especially  useful  on  muck  ground.  In  price  the  tractors 
vary  from  a  few  hundred  dollars  to  about  $2500,  the  price 
being  governed  by  the  size  and  power  of  the  machine. 


Farm  Machinery 


459 


460  Effective  Farming 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  ways  can  farm  machinery  be  injured  when  in  use? 

2.  Why  should  farm  machinery  when  not  in  use  be  protected  from 
the  weather? 

3.  How  can  the  life  of  grain  binders  on  farms  be  trebled? 

4.  Why  should  a  storage  sjied  for  machinery  be  part  of  the  im- 
provements of  every  farm  ? 

5.  Discuss  the  different  types  of  harrows  and  tell  for  what  particu- 
lar use  each  is  adapted. 

6.  For  what  are  weeders  used  ? 

7.  Name  and  describe  the  uses  of  three  kinds  of  planting  imple- 
ments. 

8.  For  what  are  hay  tedders  used  ? 

9.  State  something  of  the  importance  of  farm  tractors. 
10.    What  type  of  tractor  is  best  for  muck  lands  ? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Machinery  on  farms.  —  Visit  several  nearby  farms,  list  the  farm 
machinery  on  each  place,  and  compute  the  cost  of  new  machines  of  the 
same  type.  Find  what  percentage  of  the  value  of  each  farm  a  full 
set  of  new  machinery  would  be. 

2.  Setting  up  of  machinery.  —  Visit  a  dealer  and  have  him  set  up 
several  machines  —  a  sulky  plow,  a  mower,  and  a  grain  binder,  for 
example.  Study  the  different  parts  and  determine  their  uses.  Con- 
sult the  printed  instruction  books  for  setting  up  machinery  furnished 
by  the  manufacturer.     These  can  be  obtained  from  the  dealers. 

Write  to  the  Advertising  Department  of  the  International  Har- 
vester Co.,  Chicago,  for  booklets  of  instructions  dealing  with  the 
setting  up  and  care  of  farm  implements,  including  gas  engines.  Study 
these  carefully. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  pp.  202-231. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Davidson,  J.  B.,  and  Chase,  L.  W.,  Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors. 

Orange  Judd  Co. 
Ekblaw,  K.  J.  T.,  Farm  Structures.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Davidson,  J.  B.,  Agricultural  Engineering,  Webb  Pubhshing  Co. 
Wirt,  F.  A.,  Farm  Machinery  Manual,  Wiley  and  Sons. 
Hirshfeld,  C.  F.,  and  Ulbrecht,  T.  C,  Gas  Engines  for  the  Farm.    Wiley 

and  Sons. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

FARM    MANAGEMENT 

The  scope  of  farm  management. 

Farming  as  an  occupation. 

Choice  of  a  region  for  farming. 

Choice  of  the  type  of  farming. 

Choice  of  the  farm. 

Farm  tenancy. 

Laying  out  the  fields. 

Kinds  of  farm  equipment. 

Farm  labor. 

Planning  a  cropping  system. 

Farm  accounts. 

Farm  records. 

The  marketing  of  farm  products. 

Farming  is  a  business  as  well  as  an  occupation.  The  or- 
ganization and  management  of  it  are  subjects  of  first  im- 
portance. It  is  not  enough  merely  to  be  skillful  in  the  raising 
of  crops  and  animals.  One  must  see  that  the  income  is  greater 
than  the  outgo,  and  that  the  business  proceeds  with  regularity. 
The  farmer  should  know  which  of  his  operations  and  which  of 
his  products  pay  best.  He  should  be  able  to  eliminate  the 
unprofitable  activities,  considering  at  the  same  time  the  ne- 
cessity of  maintaining  a  certain  volume  of  business  in  order 
that  he  may  retain  labor  and  keep  his  capital  moving.  Market 
conditions  must  be  understood.  The  good  modern  farmer  is 
able  to  analyze  his  business,  understanding  the  relationships 
between  all  the  parts. 

231.  The  scope  of  farm  management.  —  This  subject  in- 
cludes studies  of  such  problems  as  the  occupation  of  farming, 

461 


462  Effective  Farming 

the  choice  of  a  region,  the  choice  of  the  farm,  decision  on  the 
type  of  operation,  the  form  of  tenure  (if  the  farm  is  rented), 
the  laying  out  of  the  fields,  equipment,  labor,  cropping  systems, 
accounts,  records,  and  the  marketing  of  products.  Obviously 
not  all  of  these  subjects  can  be  treated  extensively  in  a  one- 
volume  book  on  general  agriculture  and  in  the  following  pages 
only  brief  statements  of  the  various  phases  are  given,  but  as 
an  aid  to  those  who  desire  to  study  the  subject  more  extensively 
a  full  list  of  references  is  included. 

232.  Farming  as  an  occupation.  —  There  are  many  advan- 
tages as  well  as  disadvantages  in  farming  as  an  occupation. 
It  is  a  stable  business,  not  subject  to  serious  disturbances  of 
the  financial  world,  it  is  healthful,  independent,  and  when 
rightly  conducted,  fairly  remunerative.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  more  dependent  on  climatic  and  weather  conditions  than 
is  any  other  occupation,  and  the  average  profits  in  farming 
are  not  large  as  compared  with  those  of  most  other  businesses. 

233.  Choice  of  a  region  for  farming.  — ^  A  prospective  pur- 
chaser of  a  farm  should  consider  carefully  such  factors  as  the 
character  of  the  soil,  the  transportation  facilities,  the  health- 
fulness  of  the  region,  the  kind  and  quahty  of  the  farm  labor 
available,  the  social  and  educational  conditions,  the  kind  of 
roads,  the  average  value  of  farm  lands,  and  the  average  crop 
yields  for  the  important  crops  grown  during  a  period  of  years. 

234.  Choice  of  the  type  of  farming.  —  In  selecting  the  kind 
of  farming,  one  should  be  governed  by  the  profitableness  of  the 
different  types  best  suited  to  the  region.  His  personal  prefer- 
ence should  be  followed  also,  since  one  usually  does  well  what 
he  enjoys  doing. 

235.  Choice  of  the  farm.  —  With  the  region  and  the  type  of 
farming  decided  on,  the  next  problem  is  the  selection  of  the 
individual  farm.  Chief  questions  here  involved  are,  How 
fertile  is  the  soil?  Is  the  topography  of  the  farm  desirable 
for  the  type  of  farming  selected?  Are  the  improvements 
satisfactory?     Are    the    buildings    located    advantageously? 


Farm  Management  463 

Are  the  fields  well  arranged  and,  if  not,  can  they  be  arranged 
profitably?  What  are  the  distances  to  market,  shipping  sta- 
tion, school,  and  church  ?  What  kind  of  roads  are  those  which 
must  be  traveled  most  frequently? 

236.  Farm  tenancy.  —  Share  tenancy  and  cash  tenancy  are 
both  used  in  renting  farms.  The  first  is  often  preferred  by 
renters,  because  it  carries  less  risk.  However,  statistics  show 
that  cash  tenancy  is  increasing  in  the  United  States.  Econo- 
mists usually  consider  it  to  be  the  better  form.  The  character 
of  contract  between  landlord  and  tenant  is  a  serious  problem 
to  both.  The  proportion  that  each  shall  have  will  vary  with 
the  type  of  farming,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  region 
where  the  farm  is  located. 

237.  Laying  out  the  fields.  —  The  fields  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  of  the  same  size,  for  approximately  the  same  area 
can  then  be  devoted  to  a  given  crop  each  year.  Often  farms 
are  cut  up  into  small  irregular-shaped  fields.  The  problem 
of  the  farmer  then  is  to  arrange  the  fields  by  moving  division 
lines,  enlarging  some,  and  reducing  others.  If  possible  the 
fields  should  be  laid  out  in  rectangles.  All  roads  and  lanes 
to  and  from  the  fields  should  follow  this  boundary.  Perma- 
nent lanes  should  connect  the  pastures  and  stable  yards  so 
that  the  live-stock  will  travel  to  and  from  the  pastures  with- 
out a  driver.  Much  time  can  be  saved  each  year  by  this 
arrangement. 

238.  Kinds  of  farm  equipment.  —  Real  estate  and  personal 
property  are  included  in  farm  equipment.  Real  estate  consists 
of  land,  buildings,  fences,  drainage,  irrigation,  and  water-supply 
systems.  Personal  property  includes  live-stock,  implements 
and  machinery,  feed,  seed,  fertilizers,  products  for  sale,  fuel, 
and  the  like.  As  far  as  land  is  concerned,  investigations  have 
shown  that  large  farms  usually  give  a  greater  labor  income 
than  small  farms.  By  labor  income  is  meant  the  money  a 
farmer  has  left  after  paying  all  the  running  expenses  of  the 
farm  and  the  interest  on  the  investment. 


464  Effective  Farming 

The  Cornell  Experiment  Station  has  published  in  Bulletin 
295  some  very  interesting  figures  secured  from  an  agricultural 
survey  made  in  the  state.  Table  XVI  gives  the  results  found 
as  to  size  of  farm  and  labor  income : 

TABLE   XVI 

Size  op  Farm  and  Labor  Income 
Acres  Labor  Income  in  Dollars 

30  or  less 168 

31-60       254 

61-100 373 

101-150 436 

151-200 635 

over  200  ...  • 947 

239.  Farm  labor.  —  Both  man  and  horse  labor  are  included 
in  this  term.  Regarding  the  efficiency  of  man  labor,  a  very 
interesting  condition  was  found  by  the  Cornell  Station  in  the 
survey  referred  to  above.  The  results  given  in  Table  XVII 
show  that  on  small  farms  man's  labor  is  not  utilized  to  the 
best  advantage : 

TABLE   XVII 

Size  of  Farm  and  Efficiency  of  Man  Labor 

Acres  Farmed 
Acres  in  Farm  with  $100  Worth 

of  Man  Labor 

30  or  less 5 

31-60 12 

61-100       18 

101-150 .22 

151-200 26 

over  200 30 

Horse  labor  on  farms  varies  from  six  to  sixteen  cents  an  hour. 
Obviously  the  more  a  horse  is  used,  the  less  he  costs  his  owner 
for  each  hour.  The  term  horse  hour  is  used  to  indicate  the 
work  of  a  horse  in  one  hour.  Table  XVIII  shows  the  relation 
of  the  size  of  farms  to  the  efficiency  of  horse  labor  as  found  in 
New  York  State : 


Farm  Management  465 

TABLE   XVIII 
Size  of  Farm  and  Efficiency  of  Horse  Labor 

Acres  in  Farm  Acres  per  Horse 

30  or  less 15 

31-60 21 

61-100       30 

101-150 37 

151-200 41 

over  200 49 

240.  Planning  a  cropping  system.  —  An  individual  problem 
for  each  farm  is  the  planning  of  the  cropping  system.  It  in- 
volves a  knowledge  of  the  crops  that  are  grown  in  the  region, 
which  ones  do  best  in  the  different  rotations,  the  money  returns 
that  may  be  expected  from  each,  the  effects  of  the  different 
crops  on  the  soil,  and  other  similar  factors. 

241.  Farm  accounts.  —  In  conducting  a  farm  business,  it 
is  necessary  to  know  whether  or  not  the  business  is  profitable, 
how  much  is  made  or  lost  annually  on  each  crop  or  class  of 
live-stock,  and  how  to  improve  the  methods  so  as  to  make 
more  money.  These  facts  a  farmer  can  know  only  by  keeping 
a  set  of  books.  The  keeping  of  farm  accounts  is  not  as  difficult 
as  it  may  seem,  nor  does  it  necessarily  involve  an  outlay  of 
much  time.  One  of  the  best  and  simplest  systems  of  farm 
accounts  has  been  developed  by  G.  F.  Warren,  the  principles 
of  which  are  published  in  his  book,  Farm  Management.  Also, 
in  Farmers'  Bulletin  572  C.  E.  Ladd  describes  this  system  after 
having  given  it  a  thorough  trial  for  three  years  with  a  number 
of  farmers  working  under  his  supervision. 

The  time  to  keep  a  set  of  books  by  this  system  averages 
about  five  minutes  daily  and  a  number  of  hours  at  the  end  of 
the  year  to  close  the  set  of  books.  No  bookkeeping  knowl- 
edge is  necessary  to  take  care  of  a  set  of  books  by  this 
method.  In  fact  Ladd  found  that  in  some  instances  a  knowl- 
edge of  bookkeeping  proved  to  be  detrimental,  since  trained 
bookkeepers  have  a  tendency  to  insert  technicalities  and  com- 
2h 


466      *  Effective  Farming 

plex  entries  that  are  out  of  place  in  such  a  system  of  farm 
accounts. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  782,  The  Use  of  a  Diary  for  Farm  Ac- 
counts, can  be  utilized  in  making  a  simple  set  of  books.  This 
method  has  proved  satisfactory  to  many  farmers.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  511,  Farm  Bookkeeping,  is  another  excellent  publication 
that  is  of  value  in  working  up  a  set  of  farm  accounts. 

242.  Farm  records.  —  Differing  somewhat  from  farm  ac- 
counts, farm  records  include  such  items  as  the  yearly  records 
of  production  of  the  dairy  herd,  breeding  records  of  all  classes 
of  live-stock,  feeding  records,  lists  of  feeds  and  other  supplies, 
weather  records,  seeding  dates,  and  reports  of  the  last  killing 
frosts  in  spring  and  first  killing  frost  in  the  fall.  The  keeping 
of  such  records  requires  but  little  time  and  this  time  is  well 
spent. 

243.  The  marketing  of  farm  products.  —  A  detail  of  farm 
management  that  should  receive  more  attention  from  the 
average  American  farmer  is  the  marketing  of  his  products. 
As  a  rule  farmers  in  this  country  have  produced  their  products 
better  than  they  have  sold  them.  Selling  goods  of  any  kind 
requires  business  ability.  Much  has  been  said  about  the 
proper  grading  and  packing  of  produce,  but  one  has  only  to 
visit  almost  any  market  where  produce  is  sold  to  find  unsorted 
and  unattractive  potatoes  and  apples  side  by  side  with  those 
packed  and  sorted  properly.  This  means  that  all  farmers 
have  not  learned  that  it  pays  to  put  up  these  products  correctly. 

Another  detail  that  must  be  considered  in  marketing  is  whether 
or  not  crops  that  shrink  in  storage,  like  corn  and  potatoes, 
would  better  be  sold  in  the  fall  or  spring.  The  Iowa  Station 
found  in  tests  that  ran  for  eight  years  that  the  shrinkage  on 
corn  was  :  Dec.  1,  5.2  per  cent ;  Jan.  1,  6.9  per  cent ;  Feb.  1,  7.5 
per  cent ;  March  1,  7.8  per  cent ;  April  1,  9.7  per  cent ;  May  1, 
12.8  per  cent;  June  1,  14.7  per  cent;  July  1,  16.3  per  cent; 
August  1,  17.3  per  cent;  September  1,  17.8  per  cent;  October 
1,  18.2  per  cent. 


Farm  Management  467 

Potatoes  on  the  average  will  shrink  6  per  cent  from  October 
to  February  and  10  per  cent  from  October  to  May.  These 
figures  are  useful  as  guides  in  determining  whether  a  farmer 
should  sell  the  products  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring,  considering 
the  average  prices  received. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  farm  management? 

2.  State  some  of  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  farming 
as  a  business. 

3.  In  selecting  a  region  for  farming  what  factors  should  be  con- 
sidered ? 

4.  Why  should  the  different  fields  of  a  farm  be  of  nearly  the  same 
size  ? 

5.  What  is  the  advantage  of  having  a  permanent  lane  connect  the 
pasture  and  the  stable  yard? 

6.  Why  should  a  farmer  keep  a  set  of  account  books  ? 

7.  What  publications  can  a  person  secure  free  that  will  aid  him  in 
making  up  a  system  of  farm  accounts  for  his  own  farm  ? 

8.  What  are  farm  records  and  how  do  they  differ  from  accounts  ? 

9.  Why  should  farm  products  be  graded  and  packed  carefully? 
10.    How  much  do  potatoes  usually  shrink  from  October  to  Febru- 


ary 


EXERCISES 


1 .  Farm  inventory.  —  Make  a  farm  inventory  of  some  farm  in  your 
vicinity  using  as  a  guide  the  inventory  given  herewith  which  is  from 
Farmers'  Bulletin  511. 

2.  Choice  of  a  farm.  —  Choose  some  farm  in  the  neighborhood  as 
one  you  intend  to  purchase  and  answer  the  questions  as  given  in  para- 
graph 235. 

3.  Farm  accounts.  —  Let  each  pupil,  as  far  as  practicable,  adopt 
either  Farmers'  Bulletin  572  or  782,  and  work  up  a  set  of  farm  accounts 
for  his  father's  or  a  neighbor's  farm. 

4.  Lay-out  of  a  farm.  —  Draw  a  map  of  a  farm  that  has  irregular- 
shaped  fields.  Redraw,  with  fields  arranged  so  that  they  are  rectangular 
and  nearly  of  the  same  size. 

5.  Cropping  system  of  a  farm.  —  Plan  a  cropping  system  of  a  farm 
taking  into  consideration  the  factors  Usted  in  paragraph  240. 


468 


Effective  Farming 


Sample  Farm  Inventory :  Farm  of 


April  1,  1911 

April  1,  1912 

Phopbrty 

No. 

Rate 

Valuation 

No. 

Rate 

Valuation 

REAL    ESTATE 

Farm  of  180  acres  (155 
tillable),           including 

buildings          (dwelling 

$1,600,    barns    $1,800, 

other  buildings   $600), 

fences,    and   other   im- 

improvements    .     .     . 

$13,500.00 

$13,500.bO 

lilVE-STOCK 

Dairy  cattle : 
Cows,  dry  and  in  milk 

24 

$50.00 

$1,200.00 

26 

$50.00 

$1,300.00 

Bull 

1 

— 

50.00 

1 

45.00 

Calves 

6 

14.00 

84.00 

8 

15.00 

120.00 

Two-year-olds    .     .     . 

4 

28.00 

112.00 

6 

20.00 

120.00 

Total  value  of  dairy 

cattle 

— ■ 

— 

1,446.00 

— 

— 

— 

1,585.00 

Hogs: 

Brood  sows   .... 

2 

22.00 

44.00 

2 

21.00 

42.00 

Pigs 

8 

4.00 

32.00 

76.00 

6 

3.00 

18.00 

Total  value  of  hogs 

. 



60.00 

Horses : 

Horse,  Jim,  7  years  old 

1 



200.00 

1 



180.00 

Team,  Nell  and  Bess,  5 

and  6  years  old     .     . 

1 



425.00 

1 



425.00 

Team,  Jack  and  Prince, 

• 

6  and  7  years  old  .     . 

1 

— 

400.00 

1 



400.00 

Colt,  1  year  old      .     . 

1 

75.00 

1,100.00 

1 

145.00 

Total  value  of  horses 





1,150.00 

Poultry : 

Hens 

160 

0.60 

96.00 

125 

0.60 

75.00 

Roosters 

5 

1.00 

5.00 

4 

1.00 

4.00 

Turkeys 

2 

3.00 

6.00 

107.00 

3 

3.00 

9.00 

Total  value  of  poultry 

— 

— 

88.00 

Total    value    of    live- 

stock      

^ 

~ 

~ 

2,729.00 

~~ 

— 

— 

2,883.00 

MACHINERY   AND   TOOLS 

Grain  binder  .... 

1 



90.00 

1 

82.00 

Sulky  plows    .... 

2 

45.00 

90.00 

2 

41.00 

82.00 

Disc  harrow         .     .     . 

2 

28.00 

56.00 

9, 

25.00 

50.00 

Mower 

1 

35.00 

1 

30.00 

Hay  rake 

1 



20.00 

^_ 

19.00 

(List  all  items  of  farm 

machines,        wagons. 

harness,     and     small 

tools.) 

Total  investment  in 

machinery  and  tools 

(not  all  listed  here) 



475.00 

— 

" 

— 

461.00 

Farm  Management  469 

Sample  Farm  Inventory  {Continued) 


April  1,  1911 

April  1,  1912 

Property 

No. 

Rate 

Valuation 

No. 

Rate 

Valuation 

FEED    AND    SUPPLIES 

Farm  products : 

Corn    .     .     .     bushels 

80 

$.60 

$48.00 

125 

$.60 

$75.00 

Oats     ...         do 

200 

.42 

84.00 

90 

.501 

45.00 

Potatoes  .     .         do 

40 

.75 

30.00 

80 

.60 

48.00 

Hay,  timothy        tons 

10 

16.00 

160.00 

20 

15.00 

300.00 

Hay,  mixed             do 

5 

12.00 

60.00 

4 

12.00 

48.00 

Silage  ...         do 

40 

4.00 

160.00 

40 

4.001 

160.00 

Bran     .     . 

do 

0^ 

— 

15.00 

— 

— • 

— 

Mixed  feed 

do 

1 

— - 

31.00 

2^ 

30.00 

75.00 

Seed  oats . 

do 

30 

.80 

24.00 

35 

.80 

28.00 

Seed  potatoe 

3         do 

45 

.80 

36.00 

50 

1.00 

50.00 

Seed  corn 

do 

3 

2.00 

6.00 

3 

2.00 

6.00 

Cement 

sacks 

4 

.50 

2.00 

— 

— 

— 

Twine    .     . 

pounds 

20 

.10 

2.00' 

10 

.10 

1.00 

Total    value    of    feed 

and  supplies   .     .     . 

658.00 

836.00 

BILLS   RECEIVABLE 

J.  A.  Brown,  hay     tons 

2 

13.00 

26.00 

R.  S.  Jones, 

potatoes    .     .     bushels 

40 

.50 

20.00 

46.00 

Total 

" 

CASH 

— 

— 

90.00 
580.00 

670.00 

— ■ 

— 

210.00 
1,938.00 

Total          .... 

— 

— 

2,148.00 

BILLS    PAYABLE 

Farm  mortgage         .     . 

2,000.00 

— 

1,500.00 

SUMMARY 

Real  estate      .... 



— 

13.500.00 



— 

13,500.00 

Live-stock       .... 

— 

— 

2,729.00 

— . 

— 

2,883.00 

Machinery  and  tools     . 

— 

— 

475.00 

— 

— 

461.00 

Feed  and  supplies    .     . 

— 

— 

658.00 

— 

— 

836.00 

Bills  receivable    .     .     . 

— 

— 

46.00 

— 



— 

Cash    on    hand    and    in 

bank 

670.00 

18,078.00 

2,148.00 

Total  investment     . 

— 



19,828.00 

Bills  payable  .     .     . 

_ 





2,000.00 

. 





1,500.00 

Net  worth       .     .     . 

16,078.00 

18,328.00 

Increase     in     inven- 

tory, $2,250. 

470  Effective  Farming 


REFERENCES 

Warren,  G.  P.,  Farm  Management.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Warren,  G.  F.,  and  Livermore,  K.   C,  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Farm 

Management.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Boss,  Andrew,  Farm  Management.     Lyons  and  Carnahan. 
Bexell,  J.  A.,  and  Nichols,  F.  G.,  Principles  of  Bookkeeping  and  Farm 

Accounts.    American  Book  Co. 
Brace  and  Mayne,  Farm  Work  Shop.    American  Book  Co. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  661,  A  Method  of  Analyzing  the  Farm  Business. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  572,  A  System  of  Farm  Cost  Accounting. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  782,  Use  of  a  Diary  for  Farm  Accounts. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  551,  Farm  Bookkeeping. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  746,  The  Farmer's  Income. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  635,  What  the  Farm  Contributes  Directly  to  the  Farm- 
er's Living. 
Farmers'    Bulletin   614,   A    Corn-Belt   Farming   System  Which   Saves 

Harvest  Labor  by   Hogging  Down  Crops. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  719,  An  Economic  Study  of  the  Farm  Tractor  in  the 

Corn  Belt. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  312,  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  326,  Building  up  a  Run-down  Cotton  Plantation. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  370,  Replanning  a  Farm  for  Profit. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  432,  How  a  City  Family  Managed  a  Farm. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  341,  Fa7'm  Management  Practice 

of  Chester  County,  Pa. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  41,  A  Farm- Management  Survey  of 

Three  Representative  Areas  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Yearbook,  Separate  715,  Farm   Tenantry 

in  the   United  States. 


APPENDIX 

DIRECTORY  OF  THE  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Executive  and  administrative  head  of  the  department. 
Assistant  Secretaries  of  Agriculture. 

Assist  in  directing  the  work  of  the  department.     In  the  absence 
of  the  Secretary  one  becomes  Acting  Secretary. 
Solicitor. 

Is  legal  adviser  to  the  Secretary  and  the  heads  of  the  several 
branches  of  the  department,  conducts  its  legal  work,  and  represents 
it  in  all  legal  matters. 
Office  of  Farm  Management. 

Studies  the  details  of  farm  practice  from  a  business  standpoint, 
with  a  view  to  determining  the  most  efficient  methods  of  operation. 
Weather  Bureau. 

Conducts  meteorological  investigations  ;     issues  weather  maps ; 
handles  all  work  relating  to  climate,  storm  warnings,  frost  warnings, 
etc. 
Forest  Service. 

Administers  the  national  forests  and  develops  use  of  their  resources  ; 
directs  all  research  work  relating  to  forestry  and  forest  utilization. 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Studies  and  gives  information  regarding  live-stock ;   conducts  the 
meat-inspection  and  quarantine  work. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 

Investigates  problems  relating  to  plants  and  plant  industries. 
Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

Enforces  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act ;   investigates  questions  of  agri- 
cultural chemistry. 
Bureau  of  Soils. 

Surveys  and  maps  the  soils  and  investigates  the  fertilizer  resources 
of  the  United  States. 
Bureau  of  Entomology. 

Studies  insects  in  their  relation  to  agriculture. 

471 


472  Appendix 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 

Studies  wild  birds  and  animals,  their  distribution,  habits,  and  rela- 
tions to  agriculture  ;  administers  the  Federal  bird  and  game  reserva- 
tions and  the  Federal  laws  protecting  game  and  regulating  the  im- 
portation of  birds  and  animals.  Controls  noxious  mammals  and 
experiments  in  fur  farming. 
Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates. 

Collects  crop  statistics ;   gathers  and  collates  general  agricultural 
statistics  ;   issues  crop  reports  and  forecasts. 
Office  of  Public  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering. 

Studies  and  supplies  information  regarding  road  making,   road 
management,  road  maintenance,  farm  irrigation,  farm  drainage,  and 
rural  engineering  and  architecture. 
States  Relations  Service. 

Supervises  the  use  of  Federal  funds  for  agricultural  experiment 
stations  and  agricultural  extension  work ;    investigates  agricultural 
education,  and  food,  dietetics,  clothing,  and  household  equipment 
and  management. 
Office  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organizations. 

Investigates  problems  pertaining  to  marketing  and  distribution 
of  farm  products  and  organizing  rural  communities  for  marketing, 
rural  credit,  and  other  purposes.     Enforces  Cotton-Futures  Act. 
Federal  Horticultural  Board. 

Assists  in  the  enforcement  of  the  Plant  Quarantine  Act  of  August 
20,  1912. 
Insecticide  and  Fungicide  Board. 

Assists  in  the  enforcement  of  the  Insecticide  Act  of  1910. 

ADDRESSES    OF    THE    STATE    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS 

Alabama  —  Agricultural  College  and  Storrs 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Ex-  Experiment  Station — Storrs. 

periment  Station,  Auburn.  Delaware  —  Newark. 

Canebrake  Station,  Uniontown.  Florida  —  Gainesville. 

Tuskegee  Station,  Tuskegee.  Georgia  —  Experiment. 

Alaska  —  Sitka.  Hawaii  — 
Arizona  —  Tucson.  Federal  Station  —  Honolulu. 

Arkansas  —  Fayetteville.  Sugar  Planters'  Station  —  Hon- 

California  —  Berkeley.  olulu. 

Colorado  —  Fort  Collins.  Idaho  —  Moscow. 

Connecticut  —  Illinois  —  Urbana. 

State  Station,  New  Haven.  Indiana  —  Lafayette. 


Appendix 


473 


Iowa  —  Ames. 
Kansas  —  Manhattan. 
Kentucky  —  Lexington. 
Louisiana  —  Baton  Rouge. 
Maine  —  Orono. 
Maryland  —  College  Park. 
Massachusetts  —  Amherst. 
Michigan  —  East  Lansing. 
Minnesota  —  St.  Anthony  Park, 

St.  Paul. 
Mississippi  —  Agricultural    Col- 
lege. 
Missouri  — 

College  Station  —  Columbia. 

Fruit       Station   —   Mountain 
Grove. 
Montana  —  Bozeman. 
Nebraska  —  Lincoln. 
Nevada  —  Reno. 
New  Hampshire  —  Durham. 
New  Jersey  —  New  Brunswick. 
New  Mexico  —  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 
New  York  — 

State  Station  —  Geneva. 

College  of  Agriculture  and 

Cornell  Experiment  Station  — 
Ithaca. 


North  Carolina  — 

College     Station  —  West     Ra- 
leigh. 
State  Station  —  Raleigh. 

North         Dakota  —  Agricultural 
College. 

Ohio  — 

Experiment  Station  —  Wooster. 
College    of    Agriculture  —  Co- 
lumbus. 

Oklahoma  —  Stillwater. 

Oregon  —  Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania  —  State  College. 

Porto  Rico  —  Mayaguez. 

Rhode  Island  —  Kingston. 

South  Carolina  —  Clemson  Col- 
lege. 

South  Dakota  —  Brookings. 

Tennessee  —  Knoxville. 

Texas  —  College  Station. 

Utah  —  Logan. 

Vermont  —  Burlington. 

Virginia  —  Blacksburg. 

Washington  —  Pullman. 

West  Virginia  —  Morgantown. 

Wisconsin  —  Madison. 

Wyoming  —  Laramie. 


THE    PUBLICATIONS    OF   THE    DEPARTMENT    OF   AGRICUL- 
TURE ^ 

A  new  classification  of  the  publications  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture was  adopted  July  1,  1913,  as  follows: 
Department  Bulletins  : 

The  popular  matter  heretofore  published  in  the  bulletins  and  circu- 
lars of  the  various  Bureaus,  Divisions,  and  Offices  is  now  published  in 
the  Departmental  series  of  bulletins,  which  contain  a  popular  discussion 
of  the  investigations  of  the  Department.     A  sub-series  of  these  buUe- 

1  The  author  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Joseph  A.  Arnold,  Editor  and  Chief, 
Division  of  Publications,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  for 
the  statements  that  follow. 


474  Appendix 

tins,  known  as  Professional  Papers,  is  issued,  which  contain  discussions 
of  the  work  of  a  professional  or  semi-professional  nature,  dealing  with 
crops,  animals,  and  similar  matter,  which,  though  sometimes  handled 
in  a  popular  way,  may  be  presented  in  a  professional  or  technical  form. 
These  are  generally  of  octavo  size,  illustrated  by  plates  or  text  figures 
or  both,  and  are  generally  printed  without  cover,  title  page,  table  of 
contents,  or  index,  and  are  issued  in  editions  of  2500  to  several  thousand, 
according  to  the  subject,  the  nature  of  the  demand,  and  the  need  for 
wide  distribution  of  the  information.  Copies  of  these  bulletins  are 
distributed  free  to  all  who  apply  for  them,  as  long  as  the  supply  lasts. 
When  no  copies  are  available,  applicants  are  referred  to  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  who  has  them  for 
sale  at  a  nominal  price,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  law. 
Serial  Publications  : 

This  series  comprises  (a)  The  Journal  of  Agricultural  Research,  in 
which  are  included  scientific  and  technical  articles  giving  the  results  of 
investigations  of  scientific  experiments  by  the  DepartmeDt.  The 
Journal  is  published  weekly,  and  is  distributed  free  only  to  agricultural 
colleges,  technical  schools,  experiment  station  libraries.  State  universi- 
ties, Government  depositories,  and  to  such  institutions  as  make  suit- 
able exchanges  with  the  Department.  Further  distribution  is  by  pur- 
chase from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  the  subscription  price  being  $3.00  a  year.  The  Journal  is  royal 
octavo  in  size,  and  varies  from  20  to  48  pages,  (b)  Experiment  Station 
Record.  Published  monthly  and  contains  abstracts  and  comments  on 
the  scientific  work  bearing  on  agriculture  issued  by  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  and  other  institutions.  It  is  distributed  free  to 
persons  engaged  in  scientific  investigations  of  agricultural  subjects, 
libraries  of  experiment  stations,  agricultural  colleges,  and  collaborators 
and  cooperators  with  a  Department.  Miscellaneous  applicants  may 
procure  it  by  purchase  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  the 
subscription  price  being  $1.00  a  volume,  two  volumes  being  issued  a 
year,  or  15  cents  per  single  copy,  (c)  The  Monthly  Crop  Report, 
issued  according  to  law.  It  contains  statistics  with  regard  to  condi- 
tion, production,  and  yield  of  crops,  and  the  production  and  value  of 
farm  animals.  It  is  quarto  in  size,  contains  8  to  12  pages,  and  is  sent 
to  all  who  are  interested,  (d)  The  Weekly  News  Letter.  A  weekly 
publication  consisting  of  from  4  to  8  pages.  Published  for  the  informa- 
tion of  the  employees  of  the  Department,  and  sent  to  correspondents 
of  the  Department.  It  can  be  purchased  from  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents,  who  has  it  for  sale  at  50  cents  a  year,  (e)  The  Monthly 
List  of  Publications.     A  four-page  leaflet,  issued  after  the  first  of  each 


Appendix  475 

month.  It  contains  a  list  by  numbers  and  titles  of  the  publications 
issued  during  the  preceding  month.  It  gives  the  title,  author,  and 
number  of  pages  of  each  publication,  and  the  price  at  which  it  may  be 
obtained  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents  after  the  Department's 
supply  is  exhausted,  together  with  a  short  sketch  describing  the  char- 
acter of  the  bulletin  and  the  section  of  the  country  to  which  it  is  particu- 
larly applicable.  It  is  sent  free  to  all  who  apply  for  it.  (/)  The 
Monthly  Weather  Review.  This  is  a  quarto-sized  publication,  con- 
sisting of  12  numbers  to  the  volume,  and  is  for  sale  by  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Documents,  the  subscription  price  being  $2.50  a  year. 
Congressional  Publications  : 

These  publications  are  required  by  law  to  be  printed,  and  comprise 
for  the  Department  of  Agriculture  (a)  The  Annual  Report  of  the  Secre- 
tary, which  is  for  free  distribution  as  long  as  the  supply  lasts.  (6)  An- 
nual Reports  of  the  various  Bureaus,  Divisions,  and  Offices,  printed 
primarily  for  the  information  of  Congress,  the  edition  being  small,  and 
there  is  little  miscellaneous  distribution,  (c)  The  Yearbook.  This 
is  an  octavo  publication,  containing  articles  of  the  magazine  type, 
describing  some  feature  of  the  work  of  the  Department ;  it  comprises 
from  600  to  800  pages ;  the  edition  is  500,000  copies,  of  which  470,000 
are  for  distribution  by  Senators,  Representatives,  and  Delegates  in 
Congress ;  30,000  copies  being  allotted  to  the  Department,  which  are 
distributed  principally  to  its  correspondents  and  collaborators.  It 
is  for  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  at  from  $.75  to  $1.00 
a  copy,  the  price  varying  different  years,  (d)  Reports  of  Experiment 
Stations.  Comprises  a  review  of  the  work  of  the  Experiment  Stations. 
It  is  octavo  in  size  and  the  number  of  pages  varies  from  300  to  500. 
The  principal  distribution  is  to  Stations  and  libraries,  (e)  Report  on 
Field  Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils.  An  octavo  volume,  compris- 
ing from  1500  to  1800  pages.  It  is  made  up  of  reports  of  soil  surveys 
of  different  localities,  issued  as  soon  as  prepared,  which  are  afterward 
included  in  the  full  report.  The  full  report  is  distributed  only  to  li- 
braries, while  the  advance  sheets  of  these  soil  surveys  are  distributed 
free  as  long  as  the  supply  lasts,  the  Department's  edition  being  only 
1000  of  each. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  : 

This  series  consists  of  practical,  concise,  and  specific  information 
on  matters  relating  to  country  life,  the  average  size  being  16  pages,  al- 
though when  occasion  requires,  the  number  of  pages  is  increased  or 
decreased.  The  subjects  discussed  in  these  bulletins  are  handled  in 
such  a  way  that  the  statements  are  practically  in  the  nature  of  formulas, 
and  they  are  prepared  as  far  as  possible  to  apply  to  specific  sections  of 


476 


Appendix 


the  country,  and  are  designed  to  be  of  practical  use  to  the  reader. 
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Appendix 


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INDEX 


Aberdeen-Angus  cattle,  340. 

Accounts,  farm,  465. 

Acid  soils,  36. 

Acidity  of  soil  corrected  by  lime,  93. 

soil,  testing  for,  97. 
Acme  harrows,  451. 
Adventitious  buds,  12. 
iEolian  soils,  34. 
Aerobic  bacteria  in  manure,  72. 
Age  of  horses,  determining,  324. 
Agriculture,  divisions  of,  3. 
Air  drainage  in  fruit  culture,  243. 

in  soil,  31,  48,  53. 
Alfalfa  as  forage,  187. 

experiments  with,  198. 
Alluvial  soils,  33. 
Amber  sorghum,  176. 
American  potash,  86. 
Merino  sheep,  400. 
saddle  horses,  312. 
Ammoniacal    copper    carbonate    as   a 

fungicide,  247. 
Anaerobic  bacteria  in  manure,  72. 
Animal  manure,  67. 
matter  in  soil,  31. 
Anthers  of  a  blossom,  11. 
Apple-scab,  297. 

tree  tent-caterpillar,  265. 
Arabian  horses,  313. 
Arithmetic  of  fertilizers,  89,  92. 
Army- worm  in  corn,  124. 
Arsenate  of  lead  as  an  insecticide,  246. 
Arsenite  of  lime  as  an  insecticide,  246. 
Art,  agriculture  as  an,  2. 
Artificial  brooding,  438. 

incubation,  437. 
Ash  in  plants,  7. 
Ayrshire  cattle,  258. 


B 


Babcock  milk  test,  377. 
Bacon-type  swine,  412. 


Bacteria  in  milk,  382. 

in  soil,  31,  49. 

work  of,  in  manure,  72. 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  quoted,  256,  279. 
Balanced  rations,  289. 
Bark  of  plants,  8. 
Barley,  characteristics  of,  153. 

enemies  of,  155. 

harvesting  of,  154. 

pests,  155. 

planting  of,  154. 

soils  and  climate  for,  154. 

uses  of,  153. 
Barnyard,  covered,  use  of  a,  76. 

manure,  67. 
Basic  slag,  86. 
Beef  animals,  conformation  of,  337. 

cattle,  breeds  of,  337. 

cuts  of,  350. 
Beggarweed  as  green  manure,  66. 
Benefits  of  crop  rotation,  59. 
Berkshire  swine,  409. 
Bermuda-grass  as  forage,  172. 
Bitter-rot  of  fruit,  269. 
Black-rot  of  sweet  potato,  213. 
Blade  in  grass,  162. 

harrows,  451. 
Blights  of  white  potatoes,  206. 
Boll-weevil,  230. 

-worm,  232. 
Bone-meals  as  fertilizer,  84. 
Bordeaux  mixture  as  a  fungicide,  247. 
Borers,  fruit-tree,  268. 
Breaking  and  training  colts,  317. 
Breeds  of  beef  cattle,  337. 

of  dairy  cattle,  354. 
of  chickens,  426. 
of  horses,  303. 
of  sheep,  392. 
of  swine,  409. 
Brooding,  artificial,  438. 

natural,  435. 
Broom  corn,  174. 
Brome-grass  as  forage,  172. 


479 


480 


Index 


Bronchos,  315. 
Brown-rot  of  fruit,  269. 

Swiss  cattle,  359. 
Buckwheat  as  green-manure,  67. 

characteristics  of,  157. 

cultural  methods,  157. 

harvesting  of,  158. 

uses  of,  157. 
Bud,  definition  of,  12. 
Budding,  propagation  by,  22. 
Bud-moth,  267. 
Buds,  specialized,  15. 

use  of,  in  propagation,  22. 
Bulb  crops,  279. 

definition  of,  15. 
Bulblet,  definition  of,  15. 
Bur  clovers  as  forage,  189. 

as  green-manure,  66. 
Bush-Brown,  H.  K.,  quoted,  314. 
By-product  feeds,  composition  of,  291. 


Calcium  supplied  by  lime,  95. 
Calves,  grain  for,  361. 

hay  for,  361. 

milk  for,  360. 
Calyx  of  a  flower,  11. 
Cambium  layer,  9. 
Canada  blue-grass  as  forage,  170. 

field  peas  as  forage,  193. 
as  green-manure,  65. 
Cane-borer,  222. 
Capillary  water,  40. 
Carbon  disulfide  for  grain-weevil,  124. 
Carbohydrates  in  plants,  7. 
Case    for    storing     bottles    of     seeds, 

180. 
Catching,  holding  and   leading  sheep, 

403. 
Cattle,  Aberdeen-Angus,  340. 

Ayrshire,  358. 

Brown  Swiss,  359. 

Devon,  343. 

Dutch  Belted,  359. 

Hereford,  339. 

Holstein-Friesian,  357. 

Jersey,  354. 

Galloway,  341. 

Guernsey,  355. 

Polled  Durham,  338. 

Polled  Hereford,  340. 


Cattle  —  Continued. 

Red  Poll,  343. 

Shorthorn,  337,  342. 

types  of,  335. 
Caulicle  of  the  embryo,  13. 
Cells  of  plants,  8. 
Cheat  in  wheat  fields,  142. 
Chess  in  wheat  fields,  142. 
Chester  White  swine,  410. 
Cheviot  sheep,  397. 
Chickens,  breeds  of,  430. 
Chinch-bugs  in  corn,  124. 

in  wheat,  143. 
Chlorophyl,  definition  of,  10. 
Classes  of  compounds  in  plants,  6. 

of  sheep,  392. 
Clay,  size  of  particles,  35. 
Clean  cultivation  of  orchards,  259. 
Cleveland  Bay  horses,  310. 
Club  wheat,  133. 
Clydesdale  horses,  304. 
Cockle  in  wheat  fields,  142. 
Codlin-moth,  246. 
Cole  crops,  279. 
Collection   of    grass   seed,    making    a, 

179. 
CoUuvial  soils,  33. 
Colorado  potato- beetle,  205. 
Colts,  breaking  and  training,  317. 
Commercial   fertilizers,    amount  spent 
for,  81. 
use  of,  80. 
Common  wheat,  133. 
Complete  flowers,  10. 
Composition  of  milk,  375. 
Compounds,  definition  of,  6. 
Concentrates  for  dairy  cows,  365. 
Conditions  necessary  for  germination, 

27. 
Conformation  of  dairy   cattle,   253. 
Contact  insecticides,  246. 
Copper  sulfate  solution  as  an  insecti- 
cide, 247. 
Corm,  definition  of,  16. 
Corn-and-cotton  planters,  455. 

-binder,  117. 

characteristics  of,  125. 

climate  for,  112. 

cultivation  of  land  for,  116. 

dent,  100. 

ear- worm,  123. 

enriching  soils  for,  112. 


Index 


481 


Com  —  Continued. 

flint,  100. 

for  silage,  103. 

harvesting  of,  117. 

-husker-and-shredder,  119. 

Indian,  or  maize,  98. 

judging,  126. 

pests,  120. 

planter,  114,  129. 

planting,  113. 

pod,  102. 

pop-,  101. 

preparation  of  land  for,  112. 

-producing  localities,  99. 

root-louse,  121. 

root- worm,  120. 

scoring  of,  126. 

seed,  selection  and  care  of,  104. 

selection  of  variety  of,  103. 

-smut,  124. 

soils  for,  112. 

soft,  103. 

stover,  composition  of,  293. 

sweet,  102. 

types  of,  100. 

uses  of,  103. 
Corolla  of  flower,  11. 
Cotswold  sheep,  399. 
Cotton,  characteristics  of,  222. 

cultivating  of,  230. 

fertilizers  for,  226. 

harvesting  of,  230. 

long-staple,  225. 

pests  of,  230. 

planting  of,  228. 

rotations  with,  227. 

scoring  and  judging  of,  238. 

sea-island,  225. 

soils  for,  226. 

short-staple,  224. 

types  of,  224. 

upland,  222. 

uses  of,  225. 

-wilt,  232. 
Cottonseed  meal  as  fertilizer,  83. 
Cotyledon  of  embryo,  13. 
Cow  manure,  characteristics  of,  6J 
Cowpeas  as  forage,  191. 

as  green-manure,  64. 
Cows  on  pasture,  362. 

water  and  salt  for,  368. 
Cream  separator,  382. 


Crimson  clover  as  forage,  186. 

as  green-manure,  62. 
Crop  rotation,  benefits  of,  59. 

exercise  on,  78. 
Cropping  system,  planning  a,  465. 
Crown,  division  of,  in  propagation,  15. 
Crude-fiber,  definition  of,  8. 
Culm  of  grass,  162. 
Cultivation  of  corn,  116. 

cotton,  230. 

sugar-cane,  221. 

white  potatoes,  203. 
Cultivators,  kinds  of,  452. 
Cumulose  soils,  32. 
Curing  of  tobacco,  235. 
Cuttings,  hardwood  stem,  18. 

heel,  18. 

herbaceous,  16. 

mallet,  18. 

root,  19. 

simple,  18. 
Cutworms,  122. 


Dairy  calf,  care  of,  359, 

breeds  of,  350. 

cattle,  conformation  of,  353. 

cows,  feeding  of,  363. 

judging  and  scoring  of,  371. 
soiling  crops  for,  363. 
stables  for,  369. 
Dairying,  importance  of,  375. 
Darnel  in  wheat  fields,  142. 
Denitrification  in  soil,  49. 
Dent  corn,  100. 
Devon  cattle,  343. 
Digestible  nutrients  of  feeds,  296. 
Digestibility  of  feed,  295. 
Dioecious  plants,  11. 
Disc  harrows,  450. 

plows,  448. 
Distances  for  planting  fruit-trees,  256. 
Distillate  oils  as  insecticides,  246. 
Division,  propagation  by,  15. 
Draft  breeds,  303. 

horses,  300. 
Drainage,  soil,  46. 
Dried  blood  as  fertilizer,  83. 
Dual-purpose  cattle,  337,  342. 
Duroc-Jersey  swine,  411. 
Durra  sorghum,  178. 


482 


Index 


'Durum  wheat,  133. 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  359. 

E 

Early  blight  of  white  potatoes,  206. 

Ear-rot  of  corn,  125. 

Ear-worm,  corn,  123. 

Eckles,  C.  H.,  quoted,  362. 

Egg  production,  feeding  for,  438. 

Einkorn,  133. 

Elaboration  of  plant-food,  10. 

Element,  definition  of,  6. 

Embryo  of  seed,  13. 

Emmer,  113. 

Epidermis  of  plants,  8. 

Ergot  in  rye,  152. 

Ether-extract,  definition  of,  8. 

Evaporation  losses  in  soil,  42. 


Farm  accounts,  465. 

animals,  feeding  of,  287. 

choice  of  the,  462. 

equipment,  kinds  of,  463. 

-garden,  280. 

labor,  464. 

machinery,  443,  445. 

management,  scope  of,  461. 

manure,  67. 

possibilities,  4. 

products,  marketing  of,  466. 

records,  466. 

tenancy,  463. 

tractors,  458. 
Farming  as  an  occupation,  462. 
Fat  in  plants,  7. 
Feeding  beef  cattle,  346. 

dairy  cows,  362. 

farm  animals,  287. 

horses,  321. 

importance  of,  287. 

poultry,  438. 

sheep,  401. 

swine,  414. 
Feed,  cost  of,  295. 

digestibility  of,  295. 

effect  on  digestion,  295. 
Feeds,  function  of,  288. 

kinds  of,  290. 

palatability  of,  294. 
Fermentation  in  manure,  71. 
Fertility,  soil,  55. 


Fertilization  in  flowers,  11. 
Fertilizer  equivalents,  90. 
Fertilizer  laws,  88. 
Fertilizers,  arithmetic  of,  89,  92. 

commercial,  use  of,  80. 

for  corn,  112. 

for  cotton,  226. 

for  sugar-cane,  219. 

from  atmosphere,  84. 

home-mixed,  90,  97. 

mixed,  88. 

nitrogenous,  82. 

phosphatic,  84. 

potassic,  86. 
Fertilizing  for  sweet  potatoes,  208. 

for  white  potatoes,  202. 
Field  peas  as  green-manure,  65. 

as  forage,  193. 
Fields,  laying  out  the,  463. 
Filament  of  flower,  11. 
Fine- wool  sheep,  339. 
Fish-scrap  as  fertilizer,  83. 
Flea-beetle  on  white  potato,  206. 
Flint  corn,  101. 

Flooding  system  of  irrigation,  46. 
Flowers,  function  of,  10. 

parts  of,  11. 
Fodder  pulling,  119. 
Formation  of  soil,  32. 
French  Coach  horses,  309. 
Fruit-culture,  air  drainage  in,  243. 

-growing,  chapter  on,  241. 

harvesting  of,  260. 

plants,  pests  of,  261. 

soils  for,  242. 

trees,  planting  of,  256. 

trees,  pruning  of,  243. 

trees,  spraying  of,  246. 
Fruits,  classification  of,  242. 
Fungi,  propagation  of,  12. 
Fungicides  for  spraying,  246. 
Fungous  pests  of  barley,  155. 

corn,  124. 

cotton,  232. 

fruit,  269. 

oats,  150. 

rye,  152. 

sugar-cane,  222. 

sweet  potato,  213. 

wheat,  143. 

white  potato,  206. 
Furrow  irrigation,  46. 


Index 


483 


Galloway  cattle,  341. 
Gang  plows,  448. 
Garden,  farm-,  280. 
Garlic  in  wheat  fields,  142. 
Gay,  C.  W.,  quoted,  312. 
German  Coach  horses,  309. 
Germination,  conditions  for,  14. 

testing  seed  corn  for,  107. 
Germ  of  seed,  13. 
Glacial  soils,  34. 
Gooseneck  sorghums,  176. 
Grafts  in  propagation,  20. 
Grafting  wax,  28. 
Grain-binder,  139. 

-cradle,  140. 

-drill,  136,  454. 

for  calves,  361. 

-header,  140. 

-weevil,  123. 
Grains,  composition  of,  290. 
Granular  soil,  37. 
Grasses,  characteristics  of,  162. 

for  hay  and  pasture,  163. 

roots  of,  179. 

uses  of,  163. 
Green  crops,  composition  of,  294. 

-manure,  61,  62,  78. 
Guernsey  cattle,  355. 

H 

Hackney  horses,  307. 

ponies,  315. 
Hampshire  sheep,  395. 

swine,  411. 
Handling  manure,  74. 
Hardwood  stem  cuttings,  18. 
Harper,  M.  W.,  quoted,  347. 
Harvester  and  thresher,  140. 
Harvesting  barley,  154. 

buckwheat,  158. 

corn,  117. 

cotton,  230. 

fruit,  260. 

grass  crops,  164. 

rice,  156. 

rye,  152. 

sugar-cane,  221. 

tobacco,  235. 

wheat,  139. 

white  potatoes,  205, 


Hays,  composition  of,  292. 
Hay-forks,  168,  457. 
Hay,  grasses  for,  168. 

-loaders,  167,  457. 

-rack,  167. 

-rake,  166,  456. 

-stacker,  168,  457. 

-sUng,  168,  457. 

-tedders,  166,  457. 
Heavy-harness  breeds,  307. 
horses,  301. 

soils,  36. 
Heel  cuttings,  18. 
Hellebore  as  an  insecticide,  246. 
Herbaceous  cuttings,  16. 
Hereford  cattle,  339. 
Hessian  fly,  143. 
Hog  cholera,  415. 

manure,  69. 

-raising,  regions  for,  413. 

-lot,  sanitation  in,  414. 
Hogs,   mineral  matter  and   tonic  for, 

420. 
Holden,  P.  G.,  quoted,  105,  120. 
Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  357. 
Hoof-and-horn  meal  fertilizer,  83. 
Horse  manure,  68. 
Horses,  American  saddle,  312. 

Arabian,  313. 

Belgian,  306. 

Cleveland  Bay,  310.' 

Clydesdale,  304. 

determining  age  of,  324. 

draft,  300. 

French  Coach,  309. 

German  Coach,  309. 

Hackney,  307. 

heavy-harness,  301. 

light-harness,  302. 

Percheron,  303. 

saddle,  302. 

Shire,  305. 

soundness  in,  323. 

Standard-bred,  310. 

Suffolk,  307. 

Thoroughbred,  311. 

time  to  water,  321. 

types  of,  300. 
Humid  soils,  36. 
Humus,  benefits  of,  31. 
Hygroscopic  water,  39. 
Hypocotyl  of  embryo,  13. 


484 


Index 


Incomplete  flowers,  10. 
Incubation,  artificial,  437. 

natural,  432. 
Indian  corn,  see  Corn. 

ponies,  315. 
Insecticides  for  spraying,  246. 
Insect  pests  of  barley,  155. 

corn,  120. 

cotton,  230. 

fruit,  261. 

oats,  150. 

rye,  152. 

sugar-cane,  222. 

sweet  potato,  213. 

wheat,  143. 

white  potato,  205. 
Internode,  definition  of,  10. 
Iron  sulfate  to  combat   wild    mustard, 

142. 
Irrigation  in  rice  culture,  156. 

of  soil,  44. 


Japan  clover,  193. 
Jersey  cattle,  354. 
Judging  beef  cattle,  349. 

corn,  126. 

cotton,  238. 

dairy  cows,  371. 

draft  horses,  327. 

light  horses,  330. 

poultry,  441. 

sheep,  404. 

swine,  421. 
June  bugs,  pest  of  corn,  122. 


Kafir  sorghum,  177. 
Kainit,  86. 

Kaoliang  sorghum,  178. 
Kentucky  blue-grass,  109. 
Kerosene  emulsion   as  an  insecticide, 
246,  274. 


Labor  income  on  farms,  463. 
Lacustrine  soils,  33. 
Ladd,  C.  E.,  quoted,  465. 
Lamon,  Harry  M.,  quoted,  437. 
Langworthy,  C.  F.,  quoted,  321. 


Lard-type  swine,  407. 

Large  Yorkshire  swine,  412. 

Late  blight  of  white  potatoes,  206. 

Lateral  buds,  12. 

Layers,  use  of  in  propagation,  19. 

Leaching  in  manure,  71. 

in  soil,  40. 
Leaf  blister-mite,  267. 
Leaves,  function  of,  10. 
Legumes  as  green-manure,  62. 

as  forage,  184. 

as  soil  improvers,  50. 

benefited  by  lime,  94. 

characteristics  of,  182. 

roots  of,  198. 

uses  of,  183. 
Leicester  sheep,  398. 
Light-harness  breeds,  310. 
horses,  302. 

soils,  36.  • 

Ligule  of  grasses,  162. 
Lime,  as  an  aid  for  legumes,  94. 

forms  of,  95. 

for  soil  improvement,  93. 

influence  of,  53. 

quantity  of,  to  apply,  96. 

sulfur  as  a  fungicide,  247. 

sulfur  as  an  insecticide,  246. 

sulfur,  making  of,  271. 

sulfur,  testing  of,  273. 
Lincoln  sheep,  399. 
Linseed  meal,  84. 
Live-stock,  relation  of  to  soil  fertility, 

61. 
London  purple  as  an  insecticide,  246. 
Long-staple  cotton,  225. 

-wool  sheep,  398. 
Loose  smut  of  wheat,  143. 
Losses  in  manure,  73. 

M 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  98. 
Mallet  cuttings,  18. 
Manure,  benefits  of,  67. 

barnyard,  67. 

farm,  67,  69,  78. 

green,  61,  62. 

kinds  of  farm,  68. 

losses  in,  71,  73,  74. 

pit,  construction  of,  75. 

methods  of  applying,  77. 

stable,  67. 


Index 


485 


Marine  soils,  33. 

Market    classes    and    grades    of    beef 
cattle,  344. 

classes    and    grades    of    horses    and 
mules,  315. 

gardening,  278. 
Marketing  of  farm  products,  466. 
May  beetle,  pest  of  corn,  122. 
Meadow-fescue,  172. 
Middle-wool  sheep,  392. 
Milk,  composition  of,  375. 

for  calves,  360. 

for  fat,  testing  of,  377. 
Millets  as  forage,  173. 
Milo  sorghum,  178. 
Mineral  matter,  for  hogs,  420. 

of  soil,  31. 
Miscible  oils  as  insecticides,  246. 
Monoecious  plants,  11. 
Montgomery,  E.  G.,  quoted,  163. 
Mowers,  164,  456. 
Mulches,  artificial,  43. 

kinds  of,  43. 

natural,  43. 
Mumford,  H.  W.,  quoted,  344. 
Muriate  of  potash,  86. 
Mustard  in  wheat  fields,  142. 
Mutton  and  lamb,  cuts  of,  405. 


N 


Natural  brooding,  435. 

incubation,  432. 

propagation  in  fruit  plants,  17. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  82. 
Nitrification  in  soil,  49. 
Nitrogen,  effects  of,  87. 

-free  extract,  8. 

need  of,  in  soil,  56. 
Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  82. 
Node,  definition  of,  10. 
Non-saccharine  sorghum,  177. 
Nursery  stock,  purchasing  of,  255. 

trees,  trimming  of,  257. 
Nutrients,  digestible,  in  feeds,  296. 

O 

Oats,  characteristics  of,  147. 
enemies  of,  150. 
harvesting  of,  150. 
kinds  of,  148. 
planting  of,  149. 


Oats  —  Continued. 

side,  148. 

soils  and  climate  for,  149. 

spreading,  148. 

spring,  148. 

winter,  148. 
Obrecht,  R.  C,  quoted,  316. 
One-horse  cultivators,  452. 
Open-ditch  drainage,  47. 
Orange  sorghums,  176. 
Orchard-grass,  171. 
Organic  matter  of  soil,  31. 
Osmosis  in  plants,  9. 
Ovary  of  flower,  11. 
Overhead  irrigation,  44. 
Ovules  of  flower,  11. 
Oxford  sheep,  396. 


Papilionaceffi     sub-family    of     plants, 

182. 
Paris  green  as  an  insecticide,  246. 
Pasteurization  of  milk,  385. 
Pasture,  grasses  for,  168. 
Peanuts,  culture  of,  194. 
Percheron  horses,  303. 
Percolation,   reducing  losses  of  water 

due  to,  42. 
Perennial  vegetable  crops,  279. 
Pests,  of  corn,  120. 

cotton,  230. 

fruit  plants,  261. 

oats,  150. 

rye,  152. 

sugar-cane,  222. 

sweet  potatoes,  213. 

wheat,  143. 

white  potatoes,  205. 
Petals  of  flower,  11. 
Phosphate,  from  iron  furnaces,  86. 

rocks,  85. 

fertilizers,  84. 
Phosphorus,  effects  of,  87. 

need  of,  in  soil,  56. 
Photosynthesis,  definition  of,  10. 
Pistillate  flowers,  11. 
Plant-food,  leaching  of,  58,  59. 

effect  of  lime  on,  94. 

in  soil,  31,  56. 
Plant-lice,  on  fruit-trees,  266. 

study,  5. 


486 


Index 


Planting  barley,  154. 

buckwheat,  158. 

corn,  113. 

cotton,  228. 

fruit  trees,  256. 

grass  seed,  164. 

oats,  149. 

rice,  156. 

rye,  152. 

sugar-cane,  220. 

sweet  potatoes,  209. 

table,  for  vegetables,  282. 

wheat,  136. 

white  potatoes,  202. 
Plows,  disc,  448. 

gang,  448. 

kinds  of,  445. 

subsoil,  449. 

sulky,  448. 

walking,  445. 
Plum-cur culio,  267. 
Plumule  of  the  embryo,  13. 
Pod  corn,  103. 
Pop-corn,  101. 
Poisonous  insecticides,  246. 
Poland-China  swine,  409. 
Polish  wheat,  113. 
Polled  Durham  cattle,  338. 

Hereford  cattle,  340. 
Pollen  of  a  flower,  11. 
Pollination  of  flowers,  12. 
Ponies,  breeds  of,  314. 

Broncho,  315. 

definition  of,  303. 

Hackney,  315. 

Indian,  315. 

Shetland,  314. 

Welsh,  315. 
Potash,  American,  86. 

salts  from  Germany,  86. 
Potassic  fertilizers,  86. 
Potassium,  effects  of,  88. 

need  of,  in  soil,  56. 

sulfide  as  a  fungicide,  247. 
Potato  beetle,  Colorado,  205. 
Potatoes  (see  white  potatoes  and  sweet 

potatoes). 
Potatoes,  kinds  of,  200. 
Potato  blight,  206. 

scab,  207. 

planters,  456. 
Pot-herb  crops,  279. 


Poultry  houses,  432. 

manure,  69. 

types  of,  426. 
Poulard  wheat,  133. 
Production  of  sanitary  milk, 
Propagation,  artificial,  18. 

by  division,  15,  29. 

by  grafts,  20. 

by  hardwood  stem  cuttings,  19. 

by  herbaceous  cuttings,  16. 

by  layers,  19. 

by  rootstocks,  17. 

by  seeds,  13. 

by  specialized  buds,  15. 

by  spores,  12. 

by  tillers,  17. 

of  sugar-cane,  221. 

of  sweet  potatoes,  209. 
Protein  in  plants,  7. 
Pruning  of  fruit  trees,  243. 
Puddled  soil  structure,  36. 
Pulse  crops,  279. 
Purity  of  grass  seeds,  179. 

legume  seeds;  198. 


Radicle  of  embryo,  13. 
Rag-doll  seed  corn  tester,  110. 
Rambouillet  sheep,  401. 
Rations,  balanced,  289. 

for  beef  cattle,  346. 
dairy  cattle,  366. 
horses,  323. 
poultry,  438. 
Reaper,  self-rake,  139. 
Records,  farm,  466. 
Red-cane,  222. 

clover,  62,  184,  198. 

Poll  cattle,  343. 
Redtop,  170 

Region  for  farming,  choice  of,  462. 
Residual  soils,  32. 
Rice,  characteristics  of,  155. 

harvesting  of,  156. 

planting  of,  156. 

uses  of,  155. 
Ridging  land  for  cotton,  229. 
Roberts,  John  W.,  quoted,  250. 
Root-borer  of  sweet  potato,  213. 
Root  crops,  279. 
Root  cuttings,  19. 


Index 


487 


Root-disease  of  sugar-cane,  222. 

-hairs,  function  of,  9. 

-louse,  corn,  120 

-rot  of  cotton,  233. 

stocks  in  propagation,  17. 

-worms,  120. 

fleshy,  in  propagation,  16. 
Roots  for  dairy  cows,  304. 

functions  of,  9. 
Rotation,  crop,  benefits  of,  59. 

exercise  on,  78. 
Rotations  with  cotton,  227. 
Roughages  for  dairy  cows,  365. 
Run-off,  reducing  loss  due  to,  41. 
Rust,  grain,  146. 
Rye,  as  green-manure,  67. 

characteristics  of,  151. 

-grasses  as  forage,  171. 

pests,  152. 

planting  of,  152. 

uses  of,  151. 


Saccharine  sorghums,  175. 
Saddle  horses,  302. 

-horse  breeds,  311. 
Salad  crops,  279. 
Salt  for  cows,  368. 
Sand,  size  of  particles,  35. 
Sanitary  milk,  383. 
Sanitation  in  calf  pens,  361. 

hog  lots,  414. 
San  Jos6  scale,  261. 
Sawdust  box  seed  corn  tester,  107. 
Scab  of  white  potatoes,  207. 
Schedules,  spray,  247. 
Schutt,  M.  A.,  Table  by,  73. 
Science,  agriculture  as  a,  2. 
Score-card  for  beef  cattle,  349. 

corn,  128. 

cotton  plant,  238. 

dairy  cattle,  372. 

dairy  farm,  389. 

draft  horses,  327. 

fat  hogs,  421. 

light  horses,  331. 

mutton  sheep,  404. 

utility  poultry,  441. 
Scoring  beef  cattle,  349. 

corn,  126. 

cotton,  238. 

dairy  cows,  371. 


Scoring  —  Continued, 
dairy  farms,  389. 
draft  horses,  327. 
poultry,  441. 
sheep,  404. 
swine,  421. 
Sea-island  cotton,  225. 
Sedentary  soils,  32. 
Seed  corn  exercises,  126. 
selection  and  care,  104. 
testers,  107,  110. 
testing  for  germination,  107. 
Seed  potatoes,  size  of,  202. 
Seed-tester,  how  to  make  a,  27. 
Seeds,  quality  to  purchase,  15. 

storing  of,  14. 
Semi-arid  soils,  36. 
-humid  soils,  36. 
Sepals  of  a  flower,  11. 
Separate-grained  soil  structure,  36. 
Separation  of  cream  from  milk,  382, 

386. 
Sheath  of  grass,  162. 
Sheep,  American  Merino,  400. 
Cheviot,  397. 
classes  of,  392. 
Cotswold,  399. 
Delaine  Merino,  401. 
feeds  for,  401. 
fine-wool,  399. 
Hampshire,  395, 
-killing  dogs,  402. 
Leicester,  398. 
Lincoln,  399. 
long- wool,  398. 
manure,  69. 
middle-wool,  392. 
Oxford,  396. 
Rambouillet,  401. 
Scoring  and  judging,  404. 
Southdown,  392. 
Shropshire,  393. 
Shepherd  dogs,  402. 
Shetland  ponies,  314. 
Shire  horses,  305. 
Shorthorn  cattle,  337,  342. 
Short-staple  cotton,  224. 
Shropshire  sheep,  393. 
Silage,  corn  for,  103. 
for  dairy  cows,  363. 
stage  to  cut  corn  for,  120. 
Silt,  size  of  particles  of,  35. 


488 


Index 


Simple  cuttings,  18. 
Smut,  corn,  124. 

grain,  143,  159. 
Sod  culture  of  orchards,  259. 
Soft  corn,  102. 
Soil,  acidity,  93,  97. 

classification  of,  32. 

condition  improved  by  lime,  94. 

constituents,  31,  52. 

drainage,  46. 

fertility,  55. 

formation  of,  32. 

irrigation  of,  44. 

mulches,  43,  53. 

structure,  37. 

texture,  34. 

types  of,  52. 

water  in,  38. 

washing,  59. 
Soiling  crops,  363. 
Soils,  alluvial,  33. 

arid,  36. 

for  barley,  154. 

for  corn,  112. 

for  cotton,  226. 

for  fruit,  242. 

for  grasses,  163. 

for  oats,  149. 

for  rice,  156. 

for  rye,  152. 

for  sugar-cane,  219. 

for  sweet  potatoes,  208. 

for  vegetables,  278. 

for  wheat,  135. 

for  white  potatoes,  201. 

heavy,  36. 

humid,  36. 

light,  36. 

sedentary,  32. 

semi-arid,  36. 

semi-humid,  36. 

structure  of,  36. 

transported,  32. 
Solanaceous  crops,  279. 
Sorghum,  amber,  176. 

description  of,  174. 

gooseneck,  176. 

non-saccharine,  177. 

orange,  176. 

saccharine,  175. 

sumac,  176. 
Soundness  in  horses,  323. 


Southdown  sheep,  392. 
Soybeans,  as  forage,  192. 

as  green-manure,  64. 
Spacing  of  tobacco  plants,  234. 
Spelt,  133. 

Spike-tooth  harrows,  451. 
Spores,  propagation  by,  12. 
Spraying,  equipment  for,  247. 

of  fruit  trees,  246. 
Spray  schedules,  247. 
Spring-tooth  harrows,  451. 
Stable  manure,  67. 
Stables  for  dairy  cows,  369. 
Stall  manure,  67. 
Staminate  flowers,  11. 
Standard-bred  horses,  310. 
Stems,  function  of,  10. 
Stigma  of  flower,  11. 
Stinking  smut  of  wheat,  143. 
Stomata,  9. 
Storing,  of  seeds,  14. 

sweet  potatoes,  212. 

white  potatoes,  205. 
Straddle-row  cultivators,  452. 
Straws,  composition  of,  293. 
Structure  of  soils,  36. 
Style  of  flower,  11. 
Sub-irrigation,  45. 
Subsoil,  definition  of,  31. 

plows,  449. 
Suffolk  horses,  307. 
Sugar-cane,  characteristics  of,  217. 

cultivation  of,  221. 

fertilizers  for,  219. 

harvesting  of,  221. 

pests  of,  222. 

planting  of,  220. 

soils  for,  219. 

uses  of,  219. 
Sulfate  of  ammonia,  82. 

potash,  86. 
Sulfur  dust  as  an  insecticide,  247. 
Sulky  plows,  448. 
Sumac  sorghums,  176. 
Surface  soil,  definition  of,  31. 
Sweep-rake,  167. 
Sweet  corn,  102. 

potato  slips,  209. 

potatoes,  cultural  methods  for,  212. 
soils  for,  208. 
description  of,  207. 
Swine,  bacon-type,  412. 


Index 


489 


Swine  — Continued. 
Berkshire,  409. 
Chester  White,  410. 
Duroc-Jersey,  411. 
feeds  for,  414. 
Hampshire,  411. 
Large  Yorkshire,  412. 
lard-type,  407. 
Poland-China,  409. 
scoring  and  judging,  421. 
Tarn  worth,  413. 


Tall  oat-grass,  172. 
Tamworth  swine,  413. 
Tankage,  description  of,  83. 
Teaching  a  calf  to  drink  milk,  360. 
Terminal  buds,  12. 
Terracing  of  fields,  59. 
Testers  for  seed  corn,  107,  110. 
Testing  grain  seeds,  159. 

grass  seeds,  179. 

legume  seeds,  198. 

milk  for  fat,  377,  387. 

seed  corn,  126. 

the  corn-planter,  115. 
Texture  of  soil,  34. 
Thomas  slag,  86. 
Thoroughbred  horses,  311. 
Threshing  machines,  140,  457. 
Tillering,  of  grains,  159. 

grasses,  179. 
Tillers  in  propagation,  17. 
Time  to  water  horses,  321. 
Timothy  as  forage,  169. 
Tobacco,  classes  of,  233. 

curing  of,  235. 

-growing  districts,  233. 

harvesting  of,  235. 

preparations  as  insecticides,  246. 

seedlings,  234. 

spacing  of  plants,  234. 
Tonic  for  swine,  420. 
Topping,  of  corn,  119. 

of  tobacco,  235. 
Tractors,  farm,  458. 
Training  of  colts,  317. 
Transplanters,  456. 
Transported  soils,  32. 
Truck  farming,  278. 
Tuber  crop,  279. 

definition  of,  16. 


Type  of  farming,  choice  of,  462. 
Types  of  horses,  300. 

cattle,  334. 

poultry,  426. 

sheep,  392. 

soil,  52. 

swine,  407. 

U 

Underdrainage,  48. 
Uses  of  barley,  153. 

buckwheat,  157. 

corn,  103. 

cotton,  225. 

grasses,  163. 

legumes,  183.  , 

oats,  148. 

rice,  155. 

rye,  151. 

sugar-cane,  219. 

sweet  potatoes,  207. 

tobacco,  233. 

wheat,  135. 

V 

Van  Slyke.  L.  L.,  Table  by,  70. 

Veal,  cuts  of,  350. 

Vegetable  crops,  kinds  of,  279. 

growing,  277. 

matter  of  soil,  31. 
Vegetables,  planting  table  for,  282. 

soils  for,  278. 
Velvet  beans,  65. 
Vetches  as  forage,  193. 

as  green-manure,  64. 
Vine  crops,  279. 

W 

Walking  plows,  445. 
Warren,  G.  F.,  quoted,  465. 
Water,  capillary,  40. 
for  cows,  368. 
gravitational,  40. 
hygroscopic,  39. 
in  plants,  7,  27. 
soil,  control  of,  41. 

exercise  to  explain,  52. 
forms  of,  39. 
functions  of,  38. 
Waxed-string,  how  to  make,  28. 

-tape,  how  to  make,  28. 
Weeders,  454. 


490 


Index 


Weeds  in  wheat  fields,  142.  » 
Weight  of  grain,  bushel,  159. 
Welsh  ponies,  315. 
Wheat,  bearded,  133. 

beardless,  133." 

characteristics  of,  132. 

club,  134. 

common,  134. 

description  of  classes,  134. 

distribution  of,  135. 

Durum,  133. 

harvesting  of,  139. 

kinds  of,  133. 

pests,  143. 

Polish,  134. 

Poulard,  134. 

rusts,  146. 

seeding  of,  136. 


Wheat  —  Continued, 
soils  for,  135. 
spring,  133. 
uses  of,  135. 
winter,  133. 
White  clover  as  forage,  187. 
grub  on  corn,  122. 
potatoes,  experiment  with,  214. 
harvesting  of,  205. 
planting  of,  202. 
production  of,  201. 
spraying  of,  214. 
storing  of,  205. 
yields  of,  201. 
Williams,  C.  B.,  quoted,  226,  228. 
Wire- worm  on  corn,  122. 
Wood-ashes  as  fertilizer,  86. 
Woodward,  F.  E.,  quoted,  364. 


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The  subject  matter  is  presented  in  simple  non-technical  style 
and  presents  first,  ten  chapters  on  soil,  covering  such  topics  as 
Soil  Formations,  Texture  and  Structure  of  Soil,  Organic  Matter, 
Soil  Water,  Plant  Food  Materials,  Acid  and  Alkali  Soils.  There 
are  nine  chapters  on  fertilizers.  First  the  four  or  five  general 
types  are  discussed  and  then  such  applied  practice  as  The 
Purchase  and  Mixing,  and  The  Use  of  Fertilizers,  Farm  Manures 
and  Green  Manures  and  Crop  Rotation. 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
BOSTON  CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO  ATLANTA  DALLAS 


One  Hundred  Exercises  in  Agriculture 

By   JOHN    H.    GEHRS 

Associate  Professor  of  Agriculture,  Warrensburg  State  Normal  School, 
Missouri 

AND 

J.   A.   JAMES 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agricultural  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin 

222  pages,  $/./o 

This  convenient  new  manual  is  made  up  in  slip- 
sheet  style  with  a  generous  supply  of  blank  paper 
for  writing  in  the  results  of  experiments.  Blank 
tables  and  score-cards  are  furnished  with  all  exer- 
cises that  need  them  and  the  manual  is  fully  illustrated 
and  serviceably  bound. 

Each  exercise  is  presented  in  the  formal  fashion 
of  the  science  laboratory  and  adequate  space  is  left 
in  which  the  pupil  is  to  write  his  conclusions.  Every 
experiment  is  followed  by  three  or  four  questions  that 
emphasize  the  principle  just  developed,  and  stimulate 
the  student  to  further  research. 

There  are  twenty-six  exercises  on  Soils,  twenty- 
nine  on  Field  Crops  including  the  scoring  of  all  the 
principal  crops;  twenty-two  on  Farm  Animals  in- 
cluding poultry,  and  covering  the  methods  of  milk 
testing,  fifteen  on  Plant  Propagation  and  Horticulture ; 
ten  on  Farm  Management.  Because  of  the  slip-sheet 
binding,  the  order  of  the  exercises  may  be  arranged 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  class. 


THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
BOSTON  CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO  ATLANTA  DALLAS 


BOOKS  ON  AGRICULTURE 


ON   TILLAGE: 

Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture $1.25 

King's  The  Soil 1.50 

King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage       1,60 

Lyon,    Fippin    and    Buckman's    Soils:     Their    Properties   and 

Management i.go 

Roberts's  The  Fertility  of  the  Land 1.50 

Snyder's  Soils  and  P'ertilizers 1.25 

Voorhees's  Fertilizers 1.50 

Wheeler's  Manures  and  Fertilizers 1.60 

Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming 1.50 

ON  GARDEN-MAKING: 

Bailey's  Garden-Making 1.60 

Bailey's  Vegetable  Gardening 1.60 

French's  How  to  Grow  Vegetables 1.75 

ON  FRUIT  GROWING,  ETC.: 

Bailey's  Fruit  Growing 1.75 

Bailey's  Pruning  Manual 2.00 

Card's  Bush  Fruits        1.75 

Lodeman's  Spraying  of  Plants 1.50 

ON   THE  CARE  OF  LIVE  STOCK: 

Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 1.75 

Lyon's  How  to  Keep  Bees  for  Profit 1.50 

Mayo's  Diseases  of  Animals 1.75 

Phillips's  Beekeeping 2.00 

Valentine's  How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit 1.50 

Watson's  Farm  Poultry 1.50 

ON  DAIRY  WORK: 

Eckles's  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production 1.60 

Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry i.oo 

Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products 1.50 

ON  PLANT  DISEASES: 

O'Kane's  Injurious  Insects 2.00 

Slingerland  and  Crosby's  Fruit  Insects 2.qo 

Stevens  and  Hall's  Diseases  of  Economic  Plants 2.00 

ON  ECONOMICS  AND  ORGANIZATION: 

Fairchild's  Rural  W^ealth  and  Welfare 1.50 

Green's  Law  for  the  American  Farmer 1.50 

Hunt's  How  to  Choose  a  Farm 2.00 

Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene 1.50 

Roberts's  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook 1.25 

Weld's  Marketing  of  Farm  Products 1.60 


THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
BOSTON  CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO  ATLANTA  DALLAS 


I 


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